Music Theory

Notation

The Staff

• Neumes — symbols used in medieval manuscripts to notate plainchant; the precursors to modern note shapes, indicating melodic contour and ornament without precise pitch.
• Staff — the five horizontal lines and four spaces on which musical notation is written; pitches are assigned to lines and spaces.
• Treble clef (G clef) — the ornate symbol that curls around the second line, designating that line as G4; used for higher-pitched instruments and voices.
• Bass clef (F clef) — the symbol with two dots straddling the fourth line, designating it as F3; used for lower-pitched instruments and voices.
• Alto clef / tenor clef — C clefs that place middle C (C4) on the third or fourth line, respectively; used by viola, trombone, bassoon.
• Ledger lines — short lines added above or below the staff to extend the range of notatable pitches.
• Grand staff — the treble and bass staves joined by a brace; used for keyboard music.

Notes and Rests

• Whole note / whole rest — four beats in 4/4; rest hangs below a line.
• Half note / half rest — two beats; open notehead with stem; rest sits on top of a line.
• Quarter note / quarter rest — one beat; filled notehead with stem.
• Eighth note / eighth rest — half a beat; filled notehead with a flag (or beam when grouped).
• Sixteenth note — quarter of a beat; two flags or beams.
• Dot — placed after a notehead to add half its value (e.g., dotted quarter = 1.5 beats). A second dot adds half of the added value.
• Tie — a curved line connecting two noteheads of the same pitch, extending the duration without re-articulating.
• Slur — a curved line over different pitches indicating legato performance.

Time Signatures and Meter

• Time signature — a fraction-like symbol (e.g., 4/4) where the upper number gives beats per measure and the lower number identifies the note value receiving one beat.
• Common time (C) — 4/4; four quarter-note beats per measure.
• Cut time (alla breve, ₵) — 2/2; two half-note beats per measure; music often feels faster at the same tempo.
• Simple meter — each beat divides into two (e.g., 2/4, 3/4, 4/4).
• Compound meter — each beat divides into three (e.g., 6/8, 9/8, 12/8); the beat note is a dotted value.
• Duple / triple / quadruple — two, three, or four primary beats per measure.
• Measure (bar) — a unit of time between two bar lines; contains the number of beats specified by the time signature.
• Barline / double barline / final barline — vertical lines separating measures; double = section boundary; final (thin-thick) = end of piece.

Key Signatures and Accidentals

• Sharp (#) — raises a pitch by one semitone.
• Flat (b) — lowers a pitch by one semitone.
• Natural (♮) — cancels a previous sharp or flat.
• Double sharp (x) / double flat (bb) — raises/lowers a pitch by two semitones.
• Key signature — sharps or flats placed at the beginning of each staff line indicating the home key; sharps are added in the order F-C-G-D-A-E-B; flats in reverse (B-E-A-D-G-C-F).
• Enharmonic equivalents — pitches that sound identical but are spelled differently (e.g., F# and Gb).

Pitch and Scales

• Just intonation — a tuning system in which intervals are tuned to pure whole-number frequency ratios (e.g., the perfect fifth as 3:2, the major third as 5:4); produces beatless consonances but requires retuning when changing keys, making it impractical for modulating tonal music.
• Overtone series (harmonic series) — the natural sequence of pitches produced above a fundamental frequency when a string or air column vibrates; the partials are integer multiples of the fundamental (f, 2f, 3f, 4f…), producing successively smaller intervals; the series underlies consonance/dissonance, timbre, and the origins of tonal harmony.
• Equal temperament — a tuning system that divides the octave into 12 equal semitones; each semitone is the ratio 2^(1/12) ≈ 1.0595, allowing music to be played in any key without retuning.
• Concert pitch — the standard reference pitch to which all instruments in an ensemble tune; internationally standardized as A4 = 440 Hz. Transposing instruments (e.g., B♭ clarinet) sound at a different pitch than written, so parts are transposed to match concert pitch.
• Semitone (half step) — the smallest interval in Western equal temperament; the distance between two adjacent keys on a piano.
• Whole tone (whole step) — two semitones.
• Octave — 12 semitones; the interval between two pitches with a frequency ratio of 2:1; they share the same pitch class.
• Chromatic scale — all 12 semitones within an octave; no tonal center.
• Major scale — seven-note scale following the interval pattern W-W-H-W-W-W-H; characterized by a bright, stable sound.
• Natural minor scale (Aeolian mode) — pattern W-H-W-W-H-W-W; darker character; the relative minor shares a key signature with its relative major (3 semitones higher).
• Harmonic minor — natural minor with a raised 7th degree; creates a leading tone and an augmented second between scale degrees 6 and 7.
• Melodic minor — raises both 6th and 7th degrees ascending; reverts to natural minor descending.
• Parallel major/minor — share the same tonic (e.g., C major and C minor).
• Relative major/minor — share the same key signature (e.g., C major and A minor).
• Scale degree names — 1 tonic, 2 supertonic, 3 mediant, 4 subdominant, 5 dominant, 6 submediant, 7 leading tone (or subtonic if one semitone below the octave in minor).
• Leading tone — the 7th scale degree when it is one semitone below the tonic; creates strong resolution upward.

Modes

• Ionian — identical to the major scale; bright and stable.
• Dorian — like natural minor with a raised 6th; common in jazz and folk.
• Phrygian — like natural minor with a lowered 2nd; dark, Spanish-influenced character.
• Lydian — like major with a raised 4th; dreamy, ethereal quality.
• Mixolydian — like major with a lowered 7th; common in rock and folk.
• Aeolian — the natural minor scale.
• Locrian — like natural minor with a lowered 2nd and 5th; rarely used as a tonal center due to the diminished fifth above the root.

Special Scales

• Pentatonic scale — five-note scale; the major pentatonic omits scale degrees 4 and 7 (1-2-3-5-6); the minor pentatonic omits 2 and 6 (1-b3-4-5-b7). Ubiquitous in folk, blues, and rock.
• Blues scale — minor pentatonic with an added flat 5 (the “blue note”).
• Whole-tone scale — all whole steps; six pitches, no leading tone; associated with impressionism (Debussy).
• Octatonic (diminished) scale — alternating whole and half steps; eight pitches; symmetrical, favored in 20th-century music.
• Microtonality — the use of intervals smaller than the semitone; examples include quarter tones (24-equal temperament), the 31-tone scale, and the natural microtonal inflections of non-Western traditions; composers include Wyschnegradsky, Hába, and Partch.
• Mandolin — a plucked string instrument of the lute family with eight strings arranged in four double courses, tuned G-D-A-E (like a violin); played with a plectrum using rapid tremolo to sustain melody; central to bluegrass and Italian folk music; used in classical works by Vivaldi and Beethoven; Bill Monroe popularized it in country/bluegrass.
• Ukulele — a small, four-stringed plucked instrument derived from the Portuguese cavaquinho; introduced to Hawaii in the 1880s by Portuguese immigrants; standard tuning G-C-E-A; became emblematic of Hawaiian music and gained global popularity in the early 20th century and again in the 2000s folk revival.
• Panpipe (pan flute) — a wind instrument consisting of a graduated series of stopped pipes (tubes closed at one end) bound side by side; the player blows across the open tops; named for the Greek god Pan; found across many world cultures; in Western art music associated with pastoral imagery; Zamfir popularized the Romanian variety internationally.
• Bongo drums — a pair of small, open-bottomed hand drums of Afro-Cuban origin, joined together and played between the knees; the smaller drum (macho) and larger drum (hembra) produce contrasting tones; central to Afro-Cuban and Latin jazz percussion.

Circle of Fifths

• Circle of fifths — a diagram arranging all 12 major (and parallel minor) keys by ascending perfect fifths clockwise: C (0 sharps/flats), G (1 sharp), D (2), A (3), E (4), B/Cb (5/7), F#/Gb (6), Db (5 flats), Ab (4), Eb (3), Bb (2), F (1 flat).
• Keys adjacent on the circle are closely related and share six of seven scale tones.

Intervals

• Interval — the distance in pitch between two notes; described by a number (1–8+) and a quality.
• Unison — two notes of the same pitch; perfect unison = 0 semitones.
• Minor 2nd — 1 semitone (half step); dissonant.
• Major 2nd — 2 semitones (whole step).
• Minor 3rd — 3 semitones; defines minor chords.
• Major 3rd — 4 semitones; defines major chords.
• Perfect 4th — 5 semitones.
• Tritone (augmented 4th / diminished 5th) — 6 semitones; divides the octave exactly in half; historically called diabolus in musica; maximally dissonant in common-practice harmony.
• Perfect 5th — 7 semitones; highly consonant, foundational to tonal music.
• Minor 6th — 8 semitones.
• Major 6th — 9 semitones.
• Minor 7th — 10 semitones.
• Major 7th — 11 semitones; strongly dissonant, resolves to the octave.
• Perfect octave — 12 semitones.
• Interval qualities — perfect (unisons, 4ths, 5ths, octaves), major/minor (2nds, 3rds, 6ths, 7ths), augmented (one semitone larger than perfect or major), diminished (one semitone smaller than perfect or minor).
• Compound interval — an interval larger than an octave (e.g., a 9th = an octave + a 2nd).
• Inversion of interval — flipping which note is on top; a major 3rd inverts to a minor 6th; numbers sum to 9; perfect stays perfect, major becomes minor, augmented becomes diminished.
• Consonance — intervals perceived as stable: perfect unison, 3rds, 5ths, 6ths, octave.
• Dissonance — intervals perceived as unstable and requiring resolution: 2nds, 7ths, tritone.

Harmony

Chords and Triads

• Arpeggio — the notes of a chord played in succession rather than simultaneously; can ascend or descend; notated with a wavy vertical line beside the chord.
• Triad — a three-note chord built in thirds: root, third, fifth.
• Major triad — major 3rd + minor 3rd above root (e.g., C-E-G); stable, bright.
• Minor triad — minor 3rd + major 3rd above root (e.g., C-Eb-G); stable, darker.
• Diminished triad — minor 3rd + minor 3rd above root (e.g., C-Eb-Gb); dissonant, unstable.
• Augmented triad — major 3rd + major 3rd above root (e.g., C-E-G#); ambiguous, unstable.
• Root position — the root is the lowest note.
• First inversion — the third is the lowest note; notated 6 in figured bass.
• Second inversion — the fifth is the lowest note; notated 6/4 in figured bass.

Seventh Chords

• Seventh chord — a triad with an added seventh above the root.
• Major seventh (Maj7) — major triad + major 7th (e.g., Cmaj7 = C-E-G-B); warm, jazzy.
• Dominant seventh (V7) — major triad + minor 7th (e.g., G7 = G-B-D-F); the most harmonically active chord, strongly pulls to the tonic.
• Minor seventh (m7) — minor triad + minor 7th (e.g., Cm7 = C-Eb-G-Bb).
• Half-diminished seventh (ø7) — diminished triad + minor 7th (e.g., Bø7 = B-D-F-A); used as the leading-tone chord in minor.
• Fully diminished seventh (°7) — diminished triad + diminished 7th (e.g., B°7 = B-D-F-Ab); symmetrical, used for drama and modulation.
• Third inversion — the seventh is the lowest note; notated 4/2 in figured bass.

Functional Harmony and Roman Numeral Analysis

• Roman numeral analysis — chords labeled by scale degree; uppercase = major (I, IV, V); lowercase = minor (ii, iii, vi); diminished with ° (vii°).
• Tonic (I) — the home chord; stable, restful.
• Dominant (V) — built on scale degree 5; creates the strongest harmonic tension; its tritone (leading tone and 4th) resolves to the tonic.
• Subdominant (IV) — built on scale degree 4; pre-dominant function; moves toward V or I.
• I-IV-V progression — the backbone of Western tonal harmony; underlies countless folk, pop, and blues pieces.
• Secondary dominant — a dominant seventh chord applied to a chord other than the tonic, temporarily tonicizing it; written V/x (e.g., V/V = a D7 chord in C major).
• Modulation — a change of tonal center (key); common types: pivot chord (a chord functioning in both keys), direct, and chromatic.
• Tonicization — brief application of dominant motion to a non-tonic chord without a full modulation.

• Picardy third — ending a minor-key piece or section with a major tonic chord; the raised third is the distinctive feature.

• Neapolitan sixth chord (N6 / bII6) — a major triad built on the lowered second scale degree, typically appearing in first inversion; functions as a pre-dominant chord leading to V; common in minor keys (e.g., in C minor: Db-F-Ab in first inversion).
• Italian augmented sixth chord (It+6) — an augmented sixth chord containing scale degrees b6, 1, and #4; the interval of an augmented sixth between b6 and #4 resolves outward by half step to the octave on the dominant.
• French augmented sixth chord (Fr+6) — an augmented sixth chord containing scale degrees b6, 1, 2, and #4; distinguished from the Italian by the added second scale degree; has a whole-tone character.
• German augmented sixth chord (Ger+6) — an augmented sixth chord containing scale degrees b6, 1, b3, and #4; enharmonically equivalent to a dominant seventh chord; approaches the dominant via a 6/4 chord to avoid parallel fifths.
• Modal mixture (borrowed chords) — the use of chords from the parallel minor in a major-key context (or vice versa); e.g., borrowing iv or bVII into a major-key progression; darkens the harmony without a full modulation.
• Figured bass — a Baroque notation system in which numerals below a bass line indicate the intervals (and thus chords) to be realized above it; the foundation of basso continuo practice.
• Basso continuo — the Baroque practice of a bass line performed by a melody instrument (cello, bassoon) and a chording instrument (harpsichord, organ, lute) that realizes the figured bass; the rhythmic and harmonic spine of most Baroque ensemble music.

Cadences

• Authentic cadence (V-I) — the strongest resolution; perfect authentic cadence (PAC) requires both chords in root position with the tonic on top in the melody.
• Imperfect authentic cadence (IAC) — V-I but without all PAC conditions (e.g., inverted chord or non-tonic melody note).
• Half cadence — ends on V; feels like a question mark; common mid-phrase.
• Plagal cadence (IV-I) — “Amen” cadence; softer resolution than authentic.
• Deceptive cadence (V-vi) — expected I is replaced by vi; creates surprise and continuation.
• Phrygian cadence — a half cadence in minor in which iv6 moves to V; named for its resemblance to the Phrygian mode’s descending half step; common in Baroque music as a way to end a slow movement before a following fast one.

Chord Extensions and Other Concepts

• Ninth, eleventh, thirteenth chords — extensions beyond the seventh; stacked thirds; common in jazz.
• Suspension — a non-chord tone held from the previous chord, creating dissonance that resolves stepwise downward (4-3 and 9-8 suspensions are most common).
• Pedal point — a sustained or repeated pitch (often the tonic or dominant) in one voice while harmonies change above or below it.
• Ostinato — a persistently repeated melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic pattern.
• Voice leading — the smooth, logical movement of individual parts; common-practice rules include resolving the leading tone upward and avoiding parallel perfect 5ths and octaves.
• Parallel fifths / parallel octaves — consecutive perfect fifths or octaves between the same two voices, moving in the same direction; forbidden in common-practice counterpoint because they destroy voice independence.
• Voice types (SATB) — the four standard choral parts: Soprano (highest female), Alto (lower female), Tenor (higher male), Bass (lowest male); four-part SATB writing is the standard model for common-practice harmony pedagogy.
• Coloratura soprano — a soprano voice with exceptional agility for rapid runs, trills, and ornamental figures; roles include the Queen of the Night (Magic Flute) and Lucia di Lammermoor.
• Mezzo-soprano — a female voice between soprano and contralto in range; warm middle register; roles include Carmen, Octavian (Der Rosenkavalier), and many Handel castrato parts transposed.
• Baritone — a male voice between bass and tenor; the most common male voice type; includes operatic roles such as Don Giovanni, Figaro, and Rigoletto.
• Cadenza — a virtuosic, often improvisatory solo passage, typically near the end of a concerto movement; in Classical concertos the orchestra pauses on a tonic 6/4 chord while the soloist displays technical brilliance before resolving to V and the final orchestral ritornello.

Rhythm and Meter

• Beat — the basic unit of pulse in music.
• Tempo — the speed of the beat, typically measured in BPM (beats per minute).
• Metronome — a device that produces a regular audible tick at a set BPM, used to keep steady tempo during practice; the mechanical pendulum version was patented by Maelzel in 1815.
• Syncopation — accenting a beat or part of a beat that is normally unaccented; displacing the expected pulse.
• Hemiola — a rhythmic device in which two groups of three are replaced by three groups of two (or vice versa), temporarily contradicting the prevailing meter.
• Polyrhythm — simultaneous use of two or more conflicting rhythmic patterns (e.g., 3 against 2).
• Polymeter — simultaneous use of two different time signatures.
• Downbeat — the first beat of a measure; the strongest beat.
• Upbeat (anacrusis) — a note or notes preceding the first full measure; begins before the downbeat.
• Fermata — a symbol (𝄐) indicating a note or rest is held beyond its notated value at the performer’s discretion.
• Rubato — flexible tempo; the performer subtly speeds up and slows down for expressive effect.
• Accelerando (accel.) — gradually getting faster. Ritardando (rit.) — gradually slowing down. Rallentando (rall.) — similar to ritardando.
• A tempo — return to the previous tempo after a deviation.

Tempo Markings (Italian, slowest to fastest)

• Largo — very slow and broad (~40–60 BPM).
• Grave — slow and solemn.
• Lento — slow (~45–60 BPM); slightly faster than Largo; emphasizes deliberate, unhurried movement.
• Adagio — slow and stately (~66–76 BPM).
• Andante — walking pace (~76–108 BPM).
• Moderato — moderate speed (~108–120 BPM).
• Allegretto — moderately fast; lighter than allegro.
• Allegro — fast and lively (~120–168 BPM).
• Vivace — lively and fast.
• Presto — very fast (~168–200 BPM).
• Prestissimo — as fast as possible.

Dynamics and Articulation

Dynamic Markings

• Pianissimo (pp) — very soft.
• Piano (p) — soft.
• Mezzo-piano (mp) — moderately soft.
• Mezzo-forte (mf) — moderately loud.
• Forte (f) — loud.
• Fortissimo (ff) — very loud.
• Sforzando (sfz) — a sudden, strong accent on a single note.
• Crescendo (<) — gradually getting louder.
• Decrescendo / diminuendo (>) — gradually getting softer.

Articulation Markings

• Legato — smooth, connected playing; often indicated by a slur.
• Staccato — short, detached notes; indicated by a dot above or below the notehead.
• Staccatissimo — extremely short and detached; indicated by a wedge.
• Tenuto — hold the note for its full value; slight emphasis; indicated by a horizontal line.
• Accent (>) — a stressed attack on a note.
• Marcato (^) — marked, emphatic attack; stronger than a regular accent.
• Portato — slightly separated but not fully staccato; tenuto dots under a slur.
• Pizzicato — plucking string instrument strings rather than bowing.
• Arco — return to bowing after pizzicato.
• Tremolo — rapid repetition of a single note or rapid alternation between two notes.
• Trill (tr) — rapid alternation between a note and the step above it.
• Mordent — a brief, single alternation between a note and the step below it (lower mordent) or above it (upper mordent / inverted mordent); notated with a wavy line, with or without a vertical slash.
• Turn — an ornament that moves from the note above the principal note, to the principal note, to the note below, and back; the inverted turn reverses the direction.
• Appoggiatura — an ornamental note (usually a step above or below) that takes time value from the main note and resolves stepwise; creates an expressive dissonance on the beat.
• Acciaccatura — a “crushed” grace note played as quickly as possible before the main note, barely receiving any time value; notated as a small note with a slash through its stem.
• Grace note — a small-sized ornamental note played quickly before the main note; a generic term covering both appoggiaturas and acciaccaturas.
• Glissando — a slide through all pitches between two notes.
• Vibrato — slight, rapid fluctuation in pitch for expressive warmth.

Musical Form

• Motive (motif) — the smallest recognizable melodic or rhythmic idea in a composition; a brief, distinctive cell that can be developed, varied, or combined to build larger structures.
• Leitmotif — a recurring musical theme associated with a specific character, object, place, or idea; closely associated with Wagner’s operas, where leitmotifs are woven through the orchestral texture to guide dramatic meaning.
• Binary form (AB) — two contrasting sections, each usually repeated; common in Baroque dances.
• Ternary form (ABA) — three sections where the first returns after a contrasting middle section; da capo arias.
• Strophic form — the same music repeats for each verse of a text; common in songs and hymns.
• Through-composed — new music for each section; no large-scale repetition.
• Rondo form — a recurring refrain (A) alternates with contrasting episodes: ABACA or ABACABA; common in final movements.
• Theme and variations — a theme is stated and then repeated in altered forms (varied harmonically, melodically, rhythmically, etc.); Beethoven’s Op. 111, Mozart’s “Ah, vous dirai-je maman.”
• Fugue — a polyphonic compositional technique; a subject (theme) is introduced in one voice, then imitated in successive voices at the fifth or fourth; includes countersubject, episodes, and stretto. Associated with J.S. Bach.
  • Subject — the main melodic idea of a fugue.
  • Answer — the subject transposed to the dominant key (real answer) or with slight adjustment (tonal answer).
  • Exposition — the opening section where each voice enters with the subject.
  • Countersubject — a melodic line that consistently accompanies the subject/answer in a fugue, heard simultaneously with subsequent voice entries.
  • Episode — a passage in a fugue between subject entries; typically develops motives from the subject or countersubject and moves through related keys.
  • Stretto — overlapping entries of the subject before the previous one finishes.
• Canon — strict imitation where one voice exactly copies another at a fixed time interval; a round is a type of canon (e.g., “Row, Row, Row Your Boat”).
• Ritornello form — a Baroque form in which a recurring orchestral refrain (ritornello) alternates with freer solo sections; the ritornello may return in varied keys and truncated forms; used extensively by Vivaldi and Handel in concertos.
• Ground bass (basso ostinato) — a short bass line repeated continuously while upper voices vary freely above it; foundational to the passacaglia and chaconne.
• Passacaglia — a set of continuous variations over a repeating bass line (or harmonic progression) in triple meter; Bach’s Passacaglia in C minor is the canonical example.
• Chaconne — closely related to the passacaglia; continuous variations over a repeating harmonic progression, often in triple meter; Bach’s Chaconne from Partita No. 2 in D minor and Purcell’s “When I am laid in earth” are standard examples.
• Sonata form (sonata-allegro form) — the primary form of the Classical period’s first movements:
  • Exposition — introduces the primary theme (tonic key) and secondary theme (dominant or relative major key), often ending with a cadence theme; may be repeated.
  • Development — themes are fragmented, transposed, and developed through various keys; harmonically unstable.
  • Recapitulation — return of both themes, now both in the tonic key.
  • Coda — an optional closing section extending the ending.
  • Slow introduction — an optional introductory section before the exposition.
• Concerto — a multi-movement work for soloist(s) and orchestra; the double exposition (in Classical concertos) presents themes first in the orchestra, then the soloist. The cadenza is an unaccompanied solo passage near the end of a movement.
• Symphony — a multi-movement orchestral work; the Classical four-movement plan is: fast (sonata form) – slow – minuet/scherzo – fast finale.
• Suite — a collection of movements often derived from dances (Baroque: allemande, courante, sarabande, gigue) or drawn from a larger work.
• Opera — a dramatic work combining vocal music, orchestral music, and staging; includes recitative, aria, and ensemble numbers.
• Overture — an orchestral introduction to an opera, oratorio, or play; may use themes from the work.
• Minuet and trio — a stately triple-meter dance form (ABA); the trio is a contrasting middle section; common third movement in Classical symphonies.
• Scherzo — a fast, often humorous triple-meter movement that replaced the minuet in Romantic symphonies (Beethoven); also ABA form with a trio.

Vocal Performance Terms

• A cappella — singing without instrumental accompaniment; from Italian “in the manner of the chapel” (referring to chapel choirs that performed unaccompanied); encompasses everything from Renaissance sacred polyphony (Palestrina’s motets) to barbershop quartets to contemporary collegiate groups; in pop contexts, multi-voice unaccompanied arrangements have been popularized by groups such as Pentatonix and via the Pitch Perfect films.
• Mariachi — a Mexican ensemble genre and performance tradition originating in Jalisco; typically features violins, trumpets, the vihuela (high-pitched five-string guitar), guitarrón (large fretless bass guitar), and guitarra de golpe; the ensemble performs son jalisciense, huapango, ranchera, and bolero ranchero repertoire; recognized by UNESCO on the Intangible Cultural Heritage list (2011); the charro costume (suit with embroidered jacket and wide-brimmed sombrero) is the iconic dress.

Forms and Genres

• Ballad — a narrative song or instrumental piece that tells a story; in art music, a single-movement lyrical piano piece (Chopin, Brahms); in folk and popular traditions, a strophic song recounting a tale.
• Ballet — a staged dance work with orchestral accompaniment; the music follows dramatic and choreographic action (Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake, Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring).
• Cantata — a multi-movement vocal work with soloists, chorus, and orchestra or continuo; the Baroque church cantata (Bach) alternates arias, recitatives, and chorales.
• Etude — a study piece designed to develop a specific technical skill; can be a concert work in its own right (Chopin’s Etudes, Liszt’s Transcendental Etudes).
• Fantasia (fantasy) — a free-form composition that does not follow a strict structural template; characterized by improvisatory passages, abrupt contrasts, and harmonic freedom.
• Madrigal — a secular polyphonic vocal work, typically for 4–6 unaccompanied voices; flourished in Renaissance Italy and Elizabethan England; famous for word-painting.
• Mazurka — a Polish folk dance in triple meter (3/4 or 3/8) with an accent on the second or third beat; elevated to an art form by Chopin.
• Motet — a polyphonic choral composition, usually sacred, without dramatic staging; distinct from the cantata in being a single, through-composed piece.
• Nocturne — a lyrical, introspective piano piece evoking the night; defined by a singing right-hand melody over a left-hand accompaniment pattern; associated with Field and Chopin.
• Operetta — a light, popular form of opera featuring spoken dialogue, romantic or comic plots, and accessible melodies (Offenbach, Gilbert and Sullivan, Lehár).
• Oratorio — a large-scale dramatic work for soloists, chorus, and orchestra on a sacred or epic subject, performed without staging (Handel’s Messiah, Haydn’s The Creation).
• Polka — a lively Bohemian couple dance in duple meter (2/4) with a characteristic short-short-long rhythmic pattern; popular in 19th-century ballrooms.
• Prelude — an introductory piece, or a self-contained short character piece; Bach’s preludes precede fugues; Chopin’s Preludes are independent miniatures.
• Program music — instrumental music that depicts or narrates an extramusical idea, story, or scene, often specified by a title or printed program note; contrasts with absolute music.
• Rhapsody — a single-movement work with an episodic, improvisatory structure, often drawing on folk or national themes (Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies, Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue).
• Symphonic poem (tone poem) — a single-movement orchestral work in free form that illustrates a programmatic subject; pioneered by Liszt; examples include Strauss’s Don Juan and Smetana’s Má vlast.
• Waltz — a smooth couple dance in triple meter (3/4) with a characteristic one-beat bass note and two-beat chord pattern; elevated to art music by Chopin and Johann Strauss II.

20th-Century and Advanced Theory

• Atonality — music that avoids a tonal center and the functional harmonic relationships of common-practice tonality; associated with Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern; not the same as random or disorganized pitch usage.
• Twelve-tone technique (dodecaphony / serialism) — a compositional method developed by Arnold Schoenberg in which all 12 pitch classes of the chromatic scale are arranged into a fixed ordered sequence called the tone row (or series); no pitch class may be repeated until all 12 have appeared; the row governs melodic and harmonic content.
• Tone row (twelve-tone row / series) — the ordered arrangement of all 12 pitch classes used as the basis of a twelve-tone composition.
• Prime (P) — the original form of the tone row; labeled P-0 through P-11 by starting pitch class.
• Inversion (I) — the tone row with all intervals inverted (reflected about the starting pitch); an ascending minor third becomes a descending minor third, etc.
• Retrograde (R) — the tone row read backwards.
• Retrograde-inversion (RI) — the inversion of the row read backwards; the fourth and final canonical transformation.
• Pitch-class set theory — a post-tonal analytical framework developed by Allen Forte that classifies groups of pitch classes (regardless of octave or order) by their intervallic content; sets are identified by prime form and Forte number (e.g., [0,1,4,6] = Forte 4-Z15); tools include the interval vector and set-class equivalence.
• Polytonality — the simultaneous use of two or more different keys; Stravinsky’s Petrushka chord (C major and F# major superimposed) is the canonical example.
• Bitonality — a specific form of polytonality using exactly two keys simultaneously.
• Serialism (total serialism) — an extension of twelve-tone technique in which serial organization is applied not only to pitch but also to rhythm, dynamics, articulation, and register; associated with Messiaen, Boulez, and Stockhausen in the post-WWII period.
• Sprechstimme (Sprechgesang) — a vocal technique midway between speech and song, indicated by an x notehead; the singer approximates the written pitch but immediately slides away; used by Schoenberg in Pierrot Lunaire.
• Prepared piano — a piano whose timbre is altered by placing objects (screws, bolts, rubber, felt) between the strings; invented by John Cage; produces percussive, metallic, or muffled timbres.
• Aleatoric (chance) music — music in which some element of composition or performance is determined by chance procedures; John Cage’s use of the I Ching (Music of Changes) is a central example; distinct from improvisation in that the performer may follow random instructions rather than personal choice.
• Minimalism — a style using simple, repetitive musical materials that evolve through gradual processes; associated with Steve Reich (phasing), Philip Glass (arpeggiated patterns), and Terry Riley; the technique of phase shifting (two identical loops played at slightly different tempos) is a hallmark of Reich.

Instruments

Classification (Hornbostel-Sachs)

• Idiophones — instruments that produce sound by the vibration of the instrument’s own body material, without a membrane or string; examples include the xylophone, marimba, cymbals, bells, and castanets.
• Membranophones — instruments that produce sound by a vibrating stretched membrane; examples include the drum, kettledrum (timpani), snare drum, and tabla.
• Aerophones — instruments that produce sound by a vibrating column of air; examples include flutes, oboes, clarinets, trumpets, and organs.
• Chordophones — instruments that produce sound by vibrating strings; examples include the violin, cello, piano, guitar, and harp.
• Electrophones — instruments that produce or amplify sound through electronic means; examples include the electric guitar, synthesizer, theremin, and electric organ.

Texture

• Timbre — the characteristic tone color or quality of a sound that distinguishes one instrument or voice from another at the same pitch and dynamic; determined by the blend of overtones (harmonics) present in the sound.
• Monophony — a single melodic line with no accompaniment (e.g., Gregorian chant).
• Homophony — a melody supported by chordal accompaniment; all voices move in the same rhythm (homorhythmic/chordal texture) or melody with accompaniment pattern.
• Polyphony — two or more simultaneous, independent melodic lines of equal importance.
• Counterpoint — the technique of combining independent melodic voices according to rules of voice leading; the adjective is contrapuntal.
  • Species counterpoint — a pedagogical system (Fux, Gradus ad Parnassum) progressing from note-against-note (1st species) to florid counterpoint (5th species).
  • Contrary motion — two voices moving in opposite directions; the strongest type of independent voice motion.
  • Oblique motion — one voice stays on a pitch while the other moves.
  • Parallel motion — two voices moving in the same direction by the same interval; parallel perfect 5ths and octaves are avoided in common practice.
  • Similar motion — two voices moving in the same direction by different intervals.
• Heterophony — simultaneous variations of the same melody in different voices.

Selected Italian and Other Terms

• Da capo (D.C.) — repeat from the beginning.
• Dal segno (D.S.) — repeat from the sign (𝄋).
• Fine — the end; used with da capo or dal segno to indicate where to stop.
• Coda — a concluding section appended to a form.
• Exposition — opening section; also used for fugues (see above).
• Con brio — with vigor. Con moto — with motion. Con fuoco — with fire.
• Dolce — sweetly. Espressivo — expressively. Grazioso — gracefully.
• Cantabile — in a singing style.
• Sostenuto — sustained; held.
• Subito (sub.) — suddenly (e.g., subito piano = suddenly soft).
• Simile — continue in the same manner as marked.
• Ossia — an alternative passage provided for a performer.
• Divisi (div.) — divide; string sections split into separate parts.
• Tacet — silent; do not play for an extended passage.
• Col legno — with the wood of the bow (strings strike strings with the stick).
• Sul ponticello — bow near the bridge for a glassy, nasal tone.
• Sul tasto — bow over the fingerboard for a softer, flute-like tone.
• Mute (con sordino) — a device that dampens the instrument’s resonance; senza sordino = without mute.
• Attacca — proceed immediately to the next movement without a pause.