World Religions

Learn the vocabulary for comparing religion, then study each tradition through its origins, texts, beliefs, practices, and communities. Traditions are grouped regionally and historically without treating them as stages of a single development.

Comparing Religious Traditions

Learn a comparative vocabulary while keeping each tradition’s own categories in view.

Comparative Terms and Concepts

• Monotheism — belief in one God (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, Bahá’í). In Islam this is called tawhid and is affirmed by the shahada; in Judaism it is expressed by the Shema and the formula adonai ekhad. It is contrasted with shirk.

• Polytheism — belief in many gods (ancient Greek/Roman religion, some interpretations of Hinduism). It is contrasted with monotheism.

• Henotheism — worship of one god without denying the existence of others; sometimes used to describe aspects of early Vedic religion. Henotheism is the worship of one god while acknowledging that other gods may exist. The term is often used for religious systems that elevate a chief god while still recognizing a wider divine pantheon; Max Müller used it in discussing Vedic religion, and it is sometimes treated as close to monolatry or kathenotheism.

• Pantheism — the view that God and the universe are identical or that God is all things. It is often associated with Spinoza and Schelling, and with debates about whether God transcends nature.

• Panentheism — the view that God contains but is not identical to the universe.

• Eschatology — doctrines concerning the end times, death, judgment, and the afterlife. Eschatology is the branch of theology concerned with the end times, judgment, death, and the afterlife. It appears in Christian, Jewish, and other religious traditions, especially in discussions of Revelation, Daniel, and final judgment.

• Scripture — sacred text(s) regarded as authoritative; each tradition has its own canon and criteria for authority.

• Orthodoxy vs. Orthopraxy — emphasis on correct belief vs. correct practice; Christianity historically emphasizes orthodoxy; Judaism and Islam more heavily emphasize orthopraxy (correct observance).

• Mysticism — direct experiential encounter with the divine; present across traditions (Sufism in Islam, Kabbalah in Judaism, contemplative Christianity, Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism, Zen in Buddhism, etc.). It is often described as the experiential pursuit of union with the divine or transcendent reality, and discussions of it commonly distinguish apophatic and kataphatic approaches while stressing ineffability.

• Prophecy — divine communication through a chosen human messenger; the Abrahamic traditions share prophets (Abraham, Moses, Jesus variously, Muhammad). Prophecies are statements or revelations about the future, especially in biblical or religious settings. Social psychologists also use the term in discussions of self-fulfilling and self-defeating predictions.

• Prayer — communication with the divine; forms vary widely from formal liturgy to silent contemplation. It is a recurring religious practice that may be done individually or in communal worship, and it is often tied to set texts, postures, cleansing, or closing formulas such as Amen. Examples include salat in Islam, the Shema, siddur, tefillin, and minyan in Judaism, and Christian forms such as the Lord’s Prayer, the Hail Mary, rosary use, and Dürer’s Hands Praying.

• Fasting — deliberate abstention from food (and sometimes other activities) as a spiritual practice; Ramadan (Islam), Yom Kippur (Judaism), Lent (Christianity), paryushana (Jainism). It can also include abstaining from drink or other physical pleasures, and in Jainism it includes practices such as sallekhana. In Islam it is one of the Five Pillars, and related terms include suhur and fidyah.

• Clergy/laity distinction — the division between religious specialists (priests, rabbis, imams, monks) and ordinary members; varies by tradition (e.g., Sikhism has no formal priesthood; the granthi is a reader/custodian, not an intermediary).

• Syncretic traditions — traditions that blend elements from multiple religious sources; Bahá’í is explicitly syncretic in recognizing prior prophets; many folk traditions worldwide blend local and world-religion elements.

• Cosmogony — accounts of the origin of the universe; each tradition has its own (Genesis in Judaism/Christianity/Islam, the Vedic hymns in Hinduism, Buddhist teachings on dependent origination, Shinto’s Kojiki account, etc.).

• Afterlife concepts — heaven/hell/purgatory (Christianity, Islam); reincarnation/samsara (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism); Gan Eden and Gehinnom in Jewish thought; the Daoist concern with this-worldly flourishing and sometimes immortality.

• Idolatry — the worship of an idol or physical image as a deity; prohibited in the Abrahamic traditions by the commandment against worshiping other gods or graven images (Exodus 20); the charge of idolatry has been wielded polemically across traditions (early Christians called pagans idolaters; early Muslims applied it to Christians for icon veneration; Protestant reformers used it against Catholic saints’ images); in Hinduism, murti (sacred images) are understood as manifestations of the divine, not objects of idolatry per se. It is the worship of images, idols, or created things in place of God, and is condemned in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam; the golden calf is a classic biblical example, and debates over icon veneration are often framed in these terms.

Ancient Religious Worlds

Place ancient religious practices in their historical settings.

Ancient religions

• Manichaeism — a dualist religion founded by the prophet Mani (216–274 CE) in Mesopotamia; synthesized elements of Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Buddhism; taught a cosmic struggle between a kingdom of Light and a kingdom of Darkness; spread from the Roman Empire to Central Asia and China; Augustine of Hippo was a Manichaean before converting to Christianity; largely extinct as an organized religion but historically influential on dualist heresies (Catharism, Bogomilism). Mani said he received revelations at ages 12 and 24 and presented himself as a successor to figures such as Jesus and Zoroaster. Its communities were divided between elect and auditors. In Central and East Asia it was especially associated with the Uyghurs, and surviving Chinese forms included texts such as the illustrated Arzhang or Picture Book and the Kephalaia, along with the Bema festival.

• Mithraism — a mystery religion of the Roman Empire (c. 1st–4th centuries CE), practiced primarily by soldiers and merchants; centered on the god Mithras, depicted slaying a bull (tauroctony); initiates passed through seven grades of initiation; congregated in underground temples (mithraea); details of beliefs are poorly known as the religion had no canonical scripture; declined after Christianity became the state religion; despite superficial parallels claimed by some writers, most scholars reject a direct connection between Mithraism and Christianity. It also featured paired torchbearers such as Cautes and Cautopates.

• Ancient Egyptian funerary practices

  • mouth — In ancient Egyptian religion, the Opening of the Mouth was a funerary ritual meant to restore the deceased’s ability to eat, drink, and speak in the afterlife. It was performed with tools such as an adze and appears in contexts involving mummification and the dead.

  • Opening the Mouth Ceremony — The Opening the Mouth ceremony was an ancient Egyptian funerary ritual used to restore a dead person’s senses so the mummy or statue could receive offerings. It was performed by priests and associated with gods such as Horus, Anubis, and Ptah.

• ancient Egyptian religion — Ancient Egyptian religion centered on Ma’at, the ka, the akh, funerary rites, and gods such as Horus, Ra, and Osiris. Its afterlife traditions include the opening of the mouth, the weighing of the heart, and texts such as the Amduat, while later revivalist forms include Kemetism.

  • ancient Egyptians — The ancient Egyptians developed a mythic world centered on Osiris, Horus, Isis, and the afterlife in the Field of Reeds. Their religion features mummification, the Opening of the Mouth ritual, and the weighing of the heart against Ma’at’s feather.

  • Atenism — Atenism was the Egyptian cult centered on the solar disk Aten and promoted under Akhenaten in the Eighteenth Dynasty. It is associated with Amarna-period art, open-air temples, and the religious reforms later linked to the so-called Amarna heresy.
    • Hymn to Aten or Akhenaten’s Great Hymn or Great Hymn to the Sun before mentioned — The Hymn to Aten is an Egyptian religious poem associated with Akhenaten and the Amarna period. It praises the sun god Aten as a creator who gives life to all living things.

  • ba — In ancient Egyptian religion, the ba was the aspect of the soul linked to personality and mobility after death. It was often shown as a human-headed bird and contrasted with the ka. The ba appears in texts such as The Dispute Between a Man and His Ba, where it speaks with the living self and debates death. The term survives in funerary language like “coming forth by day.”

  • Barque — A barque is a boat or ship, especially in Egyptian religion where solar and funerary barques carry gods or the dead. The clue set points to sacred vessels used by Amun, Osiris, Ra, and in the Book of the Dead.

  • Deities
    • Ma’at — The Egyptian goddess and principle of truth, justice, and cosmic order, symbolized by an ostrich feather. In the afterlife, a dead person’s heart was weighed against her feather; the righteous were sent to Aaru, while hearts that failed the test were devoured by Ammit.
      • feather of Ma’at — In Egyptian mythology, the feather of Ma’at is the standard against which a dead person’s heart is weighed in the judgment of the dead. If the heart is heavier than this feather, it is devoured by Ammit. The object symbolizes truth, balance, and cosmic order.
  • Egyptian texts
    • The Book of the Heavenly Cow — The Book of the Heavenly Cow, also called The Destruction of Humanity, is a New Kingdom Egyptian text about Ra’s retreat from a rebellious world. It features Hathor as the Eye of Ra and ends with Nut turned into the title animal to carry the weakened sun god away.

  • Egyptians — The Egyptians developed a rich mythology centered on Osiris, Ra, Ma’at, and the judgment of the dead. Their creation stories include self-generation myths, the benu bird, and the primordial mound, all of which recur in quizbowl clues about Egyptian religion.

  • Funerary judgment
    • weighing of the heart — The weighing of the heart is the Egyptian afterlife judgment in which the deceased’s heart is measured against the feather of Ma’at.
  • funerary ritual
    • Opening of the Mouth — The Opening of the Mouth was an ancient Egyptian funerary ritual performed on the mummified body to restore the deceased’s senses for the afterlife. It appears in the Book of the Dead and uses ritual implements such as the peseshkef and wehrekau.
  • Solar deities
    • Aten — Aten was the Egyptian solar disk deity elevated by Akhenaten and Nefertiti during the Amarna period as the central god of Akhenaten’s monotheistic religious reform. Its worship is associated with the Great Hymn to the Aten, talatat temples, and iconography showing rays ending in hands. Worship waned after Akhenaten’s reign and was later associated with the period of King Tut.
  • Soul components
    • akh — The akh was an ancient Egyptian component of the soul that survived death and could appear among the living or in the sky as a star.
  • soul concepts
    • ka — In ancient Egyptian religion, the ka is a person’s vital spiritual double or life-force. It is distinct from the ba and akh, and it could be sustained by offerings of food and drink.
  • Symbols

    • Djed — The djed is an ancient Egyptian symbol of stability and strength, usually associated with the backbone of Osiris. It was used in funerary contexts and appears in later symbolic forms outside religion, including modern puzzle and game references.

    • scarab — The scarab is the sacred beetle associated with rebirth and creation in Egyptian religion. It appears in funerary jewelry and is linked to Khepri, the sun god often shown with a scarab head.

• Ancient Near Eastern religion
  • Canaanite deities
    • Molech — Molech, or Moloch, is an ancient deity associated in biblical tradition with child sacrifice by fire. Leviticus forbids the Israelites from making their children pass through the fire to him.
• Ancient religion
  • child sacrifice — Child sacrifice is the ritual practice associated with some ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern religions, including accusations made against the Carthaginians at tophets. Quizbowl clues connect it to Ba’al Hammon, Tanit, and biblical condemnations of sacrifice.
• Ancient Roman religion
  • Galli — The Galli were the self-castrating priests of Cybele in Roman religion. They were associated with ecstatic ritual, drums, pipes, and a foreign Phrygian cult that Romans treated with suspicion.
• Canaanite religion
  • Asherah — Asherah was an ancient Northwest Semitic mother goddess often linked with El and, in some Israelite contexts, with Yahweh. She is associated with sacred poles, grove worship, and archaeological finds such as pillar-base figurines and inscriptions from Kuntillet Ajrud. Biblical clues about the Queen of Heaven or the prophets of Baal may point to Asherah, who appears in debates about folk religion and the religious history of ancient Israel. Some scholars have argued that her cult was later edited out of biblical narratives.
• Carthaginian Religion
  • Deities
    • Tanit — Tanit was the chief goddess of Carthage and the consort of Baal Hammon. She was associated with fertility, war, and child sacrifice in Punic worship, and her symbol is the disk-and-triangle sign often identified with Carthage.
  • Ba’al Hammon — Ba’al Hammon was the chief god of Carthage and a deity associated with fertility and the weather. He is often linked with Tanit and identified by Greco-Roman writers with Cronus.
• Celtic festivals

  • Beltane — A Gaelic spring festival celebrated around May 1, traditionally observed on April 30 or May 1 and often treated in Ireland and Scotland as the beginning of summer. It is associated with bonfires and other seasonal rites, modern neopagan or Wiccan observances, and in some traditions a ritual marriage of the Green Man and the Queen of May.

  • Imbolc — Imbolc is a Celtic seasonal festival celebrated around February 1 and associated with Brigid, the coming of spring, and later Candlemas traditions. Modern Druids and Wheel of the Year observances often treat it as an initiation or fire festival.

• Celtic religion

  • Druidism — Druidism was the ancient Celtic religious tradition associated with oak trees, mistletoe, sacrifice, and reverence for groves and stone sites. It was eventually suppressed by Roman power and later remembered as a neopagan or priestly cult.

  • festivals

    • Beltaine — Beltaine is the Celtic fire festival celebrated around May 1, marked by bonfires for purification. It is linked with Walpurgis Night and with fertility rites involving the marriage of Cernunnos and a goddess.

    • Samhain — Samhain is the Gaelic seasonal festival marking the end of the harvest and the beginning of winter, celebrated around October 31 or November 1. It is the Celtic new year and is associated with liminal Halloween customs, bonfires, offerings to the aos sí, and the thinning boundary between the human world and the spirit world. Its customs fed into Halloween and All Saints’ Day, and it remains important in Wiccan and Neopagan observance, including as one of the eight festivals on the Wheel of the Year opposite Beltane.

  • Samhain (you can prompt “Halloween” until Emhain) — Samhain is the Celtic harvest festival whose name means ‘summer’s end’ and is celebrated on November 1. It is associated with spirits, divination customs, and the origin of Halloween.
• Dionysus
  • Anthesteria — Anthesteria was a three-day Athenian festival of Dionysus marking the opening of the new wine vintage. Its days were called Pithoigia, Choes, and Chytroi, and it included rituals such as the basilinna’s sacred marriage.
• Germanic paganism

  • Irminsul — The Irminsul was a sacred pillar or world-tree symbol in Saxon paganism. Charlemagne’s Saxon campaigns destroyed it, and later Nazi-era writers and archaeologists tried to connect it to Germanic monuments such as the Externsteine relief.

  • Norse paganism — Norse paganism is the pre-Christian religion of Scandinavia, centered on gods such as Odin, Thor, and Freya. Questions on it often mention blóts, sumbels, Uppsala, draugar, and later revival movements such as Ásatrú.

    • Heathenry
      • Asatru — Asatru is a modern heathen neopagan religion centered on the worship of the Aesir. It has organized groups and festivals that frame Norse practice in contemporary terms, including American revivalist movements and named holidays.
• Norse cult sites
  • the temple at Uppsala — The temple at Uppsala is the legendary Norse cult site in Sweden described by Adam of Bremen and Snorri Sturluson. Accounts place statues of major gods there and connect it with sacrifice, gold ornamentation, and the old cult center at Uppsala.
• Roman religion

  • Bacchanalia — The Bacchanalia were Roman festivals of Bacchus, the wine god, notorious for ecstatic rites and later state suppression. A Roman senatorial decree in 186 BC restricted the cult after accusations of secretive excess and disorder.

  • Pontifex Maximus — Pontifex Maximus was the chief priest of the Roman state religion, responsible for the major flamines and the rex sacrorum. Roman leaders such as Julius Caesar, Augustus, and Lepidus held the office, which later became an honorary title of the pope.

  • Religious law
    • Fas — Fas is a Roman religious term for what is permitted or sanctioned by divine law. It contrasts with what is allowed under secular law, such as jus or lex.

  • Sol Invictus — Sol Invictus was the late Roman sun god whose cult was promoted by Aurelian and linked with imperial solar imagery. He is often paired with Mithras in banquet scenes and is sometimes discussed in relation to the winter solstice and the dating of Christmas.

  • Deus Sol Invictus — Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, was a Roman solar deity promoted as a state cult under Aurelian. He appears on the Arch of Constantine, and later associations connected his worship with December 25 and a weekly day of rest under Constantine.

  • Vestal Virgins — The Vestal Virgins were the chaste priestesses of Vesta in ancient Rome, responsible for keeping the sacred fire burning and preparing mola salsa. They answered to the pontifex maximus, enjoyed extraordinary legal privileges such as immunity from court proceedings and the right to make wills, and could even spare a condemned criminal they met on the way to execution. Violating their vows of chastity was famously punished by burial alive. Their order was dissolved by Theodosius in 394 CE.

Zoroastrianism

• Zoroastrianism
  • afterlife
    • Chinvat Bridge — The Chinvat Bridge is the Zoroastrian bridge of judgment crossed by the dead. It widens for the righteous and leads to the House of Song, but narrows for the wicked and drops them toward the House of Lies.

  • Amesha Spenta — The Amesha Spenta are the six beneficent divine beings created by Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. Their name means “beneficent immortals,” and some traditions count a seventh divine spirit alongside them.

  • Daevas — In Zoroastrianism, the daevas are rejected beings opposed to Ahura Mazda and the yazatas, associated with evil, impurity, chaos, and druj. The Avesta treats them as false gods or demonic entities, and traditions may connect them with figures such as Angra Mainyu, Jahi, and Ahriman’s followers. Related material includes the Vendidad’s purity rules, the sagdīd corpse ritual with dogs, and Xerxes I’s anti-daeva decree.

  • Divine beings
    • Yazata — In Zoroastrianism, a yazata is a divine being or worthy of worship, often serving as a messenger or beneficent spirit. Mithra, Mah, and Rashnu are among the figures associated with this category.
  • Divinities
    • Amesha Spentas — The Amesha Spentas are the six bounteous immortals of Zoroastrianism, emanations of Ahura Mazda and opponents of the daevas. They include figures such as Asha and Vohu Manah, who represent truth and good purpose.
      • Vohu Manah — Vohu Manah is a major Amesha Spenta in Zoroastrianism, associated with good purpose, wisdom, cattle, and fire. He is often described as a divine guide who brought Zoroaster before Ahura Mazda and whose name appears in the Zoroastrian calendar.
  • Evil spirits
    • Ahriman — Ahriman, also called Angra Mainyu, is the Zoroastrian personification of evil and destructive or false mentality, opposed to Ahura Mazda. He embodies chaos, evil, and opposition to truth and order, is linked to the daevas and mythic figures such as Azi Dahaka, and is described in later tradition as the source or twin of evil in the cosmic struggle.
  • Festivals
    • Nowruz — Nowruz is the Persian New Year celebrated at the vernal equinox, with customs such as haft sin tables, spring cleaning, bonfires, and goldfish bowls. It is a pre-Islamic Zoroastrian holiday that remains important across Iran and related cultural traditions.

  • Fravarane — The Fravarane is the Zoroastrian creed, the declaration that begins by affirming oneself as a Mazda-worshiper. It appears in Yasna 12 and is traditionally associated with the ritual recitation at the end of the kusti prayer.

  • haoma — Haoma is the Zoroastrian ritual plant and drink associated with sacrifice, purification, and the Yasna liturgy. It is often compared to Vedic soma and is central to Zoroastrian ritual practice and eschatology.

  • holy fires — Holy fire is a sacred element in Zoroastrianism, kept perpetually burning in temples called agiaries. Its highest form is the Atash Bahram, and priests handle it with masks because it must never be extinguished.

  • Liturgy
    • The Yasna — The Yasna is the main Zoroastrian liturgy and the text recited in that ceremony. It is divided into 72 chapters, including the Gathas, and is associated with the Avesta.
  • Mythological beings
    • Azhi Dahaka — A monstrous storm serpent or dragon from Zoroastrian tradition, later known in Persian legend as Zahhak. He steals cattle, is associated with devastation and death, and is chained beneath Mount Demavand/Demavend. In later tradition he has serpents on his shoulders, was overthrown by Fereydun with help from Kaveh the Blacksmith, was opposed by heroic figures such as Thraetona and Keresaspa, and is destined to perish in a river of fire at the end of the world.
  • Mythology
    • Zoroastrian mythology — Zoroastrian mythology centers on the cosmic struggle between Ahura Mazda and Ahriman. Its traditions include the Gathas and the Zend Avesta, as well as figures like the savior Sashoyant, the first man Gayomart, and the Amesha Spentas.
  • Places of Worship

    • fire temple — A fire temple is a Zoroastrian place of worship centered on the veneration of fire. The Story of Sanjan links one famous Indian example to the granting of a sacred, everlasting flame.

    • fire temples — Zoroastrian houses of worship centered on a sacred fire that symbolizes divine presence. Priests recite the Yasna there and maintain an atar or afringan. They are especially common in India, and higher grades include the Atash Behram.

  • Ritual clothing
    • Kushti — The kushti is the sacred Zoroastrian waist cord worn with the sedreh. Its seventy-two threads symbolize the chapters of the Yasna, and it is received during initiation.

  • Saoshyant — Saoshyant is the Zoroastrian messianic savior who will bring about frashokereti, the final renovation of the world. He is expected to resurrect the dead and is often described in clues as a virgin-born figure who spends his early years eating only vegetables.

  • Sects
    • Zurvanism — Zurvanism is the defunct Zoroastrian sect that made Zurvan, the god of infinite time and space, the source of both Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. Its worldview is usually described as a fatalistic branch of Zoroastrianism and is associated in the clues with the Sasanian period.
      • Zurvan — Zurvan is a Zoroastrian time deity associated with Zurvanism, a sect that treated him as the father of Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu. He is linked to the idea of a divine ruler granting 9,000 years of kingship and to later discussions connecting him with the air god Vayu.

  • Vishtaspa — Vishtaspa, also called Hystaspes, was an early Zoroastrian king of Bactria. He is remembered as the first major patron of Zoroastrianism and as a ruler converted by Zarathustra.

  • Yasna — The Yasna is a central Zoroastrian liturgical text and ceremony, recited in worship and ritual services and forming part of the Avesta. Its core includes the Gathas, and it is associated with rites such as the Ab-Zohr and the offering of haoma to water.

  • Yazatas
    • Anahita — Anahita is an Iranian water and fertility goddess associated with healing, wisdom, and the world’s waters. She appears in Zoroastrian and Armenian traditions and is invoked in hymns and royal inscriptions alongside Ahura Mazda and Mithra.

  • Zoroaster — The prophet traditionally credited with founding Zoroastrianism and composing the Gathas of the Avesta, the religion’s oldest sacred hymns. His teaching centers on Ahura Mazda and the opposing evil force Angra Mainyu, or Ahriman, and on the struggle between Asha, truth and order, and Druj, falsehood. Later tradition associated him with astrology, revelation, and the conversion of Vishtaspa.

  • Zurvan Akarana — Zurvan Akarana is the Zoroastrian god of infinite time, often treated as the source of both Ahura Mazda and Ahriman. In Zurvanism, he is described as androgynous and associated with the Sassanid state religion.

• Founder — Zarathustra (Greek: Zoroaster); an ancient Iranian prophet whose dates are debated (c. 1500–600 BCE range); his teachings reformulated an earlier Iranian polytheism.

• Ahura Mazda — “Wise Lord”; the supreme deity in Zoroastrianism; the good, creative force. His name means “Lord of Wisdom.” He opposes Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) and is associated with the Amesha Spenta, yazatas, and the cosmic struggle against the daevas.

• Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) — the destructive spirit opposing Ahura Mazda; the source of evil and chaos.

• Avesta — the Zoroastrian sacred text; includes the Gathas, hymns composed by Zarathustra himself. Also called the Zend Avesta, it is the central scripture collection of Zoroastrianism, written in Avestan. Major sections named in the records include the Yasna, Vendidad, Visperad, Yashts, and Khordah Avesta.
  • Vendidad — The Vendidad is a Zoroastrian text in the Avesta concerned with purity law, myth, and ritual prescriptions. It includes chapters called fargards and instructions on corpse disposal, cleansing, and other priestly practices.

• Gathas — the oldest and most sacred Zoroastrian texts; seventeen hymns attributed directly to Zarathustra. The Gathas are the oldest and most sacred Zoroastrian hymns, forming the core of the Yasna liturgy. They are traditionally associated with Zarathustra and with praise of Ahura Mazda and the moral struggle against the daevas. These hymns are divided within the Avesta by prose sections known as the Haptanghaiti.

• Asha — truth, righteousness, and cosmic order; the core Zoroastrian value, opposed by druj (lie/chaos). It is closely tied to Ahura Mazda and to the Amesha Spenta associated with right order.

• Sacred fire — fire is a symbol of Ahura Mazda’s divine light; fire temples (Agiaries) are the centers of Zoroastrian worship; fires are kept perpetually burning.

  • atar — Atar is the Zoroastrian sacred fire associated with ritual purity and worship in fire temples. Clues include the Yasna, haoma offerings, the Behram grade, Nowruz observances, and the temple grades Adaran and Atash Behram.

  • fire — Fire is combustion and burning, including conflagrations that can spread through buildings. In Hindu ritual it is a sacred and symbolic substance embodied by Agni and used in yajna, homa, aarti, and cremation practices. In Zoroastrian contexts it is associated with atar and with sacred fire temples, where it is treated as a pure, central element. It also appears in art-history references to Turner, Magritte, Raphael, and Georges de la Tour, and in mythic personifications such as Logi, Surtr, and the god Hephaestus’ domain.

    • fires — Fires are destructive rapid combustion events that can spread through cities, factories, and forests. Famous examples include the Great Chicago Fire, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, the Peshtigo Fire, and modern urban disasters and wildfires. In religion, fire can be sacred and purifying, especially in Zoroastrianism, where Atar names the holy flame and fire temples are central.

• Parsis — the Zoroastrian diaspora in India, descended from Persian refugees who migrated c. 8th–10th century CE. They are the surviving Indian Zoroastrian community, also called Parsees; their customs include navjote initiation and exposure of the dead on Towers of Silence. They are especially associated with Gujarati-speaking communities in Bombay and Navsari.

• Influence — Zoroastrian concepts (cosmic dualism, judgment after death, heaven/hell, a future savior/Saoshyant) are thought to have influenced later Abrahamic religions.

• Zoroastrian eschatology
  • Frashokereti — Frashokereti is the Zoroastrian apocalypse, the final renewal in which Ahura Mazda defeats Angra Mainyu and evil is purged from the world. It features Saoshyant, the resurrection of the dead, and a river of molten metal that the righteous experience as warm milk.
• Zoroastrian texts
  • Denkard — The Denkard is a Middle Persian Zoroastrian encyclopedia, divided into nine books or nasks and compiled under Islamic rule. It preserves discussions of ritual purity, creation, and definitions of central Zoroastrian terms. Traditionally associated with Adurfarnbag, it is one of the major non-scriptural sources for Zoroastrian belief. Passages address questions from Christians and Muslims alike, including instructions on washing the body and using barsoms.
• Zoroastrian funerary practices
  • Tower of Silence — A Tower of Silence, or dakhma, is a Zoroastrian funerary structure used for sky burial, where the dead are exposed on raised circular platforms to be consumed by scavenging birds and weather instead of being buried. These structures are especially associated with the Parsi community. Some are arranged in concentric rings for men, women, and children, and examples are found in Yazd, India, and Chilpik. Concerns about vulture decline have affected their traditional use.
• Persian New Year
  • haft-sin — Haft-sin is the Persian New Year display built around seven symbolic items that start with the letter S, usually arranged on a household table for Nowruz. It can include a germinated wheat pudding called samanu and goldfish, and it is associated with spring cleaning and the bonfire-jumping festival of Chaharshanbe Suri.

South Asian Traditions

Distinguish South Asian traditions through texts, teachings, and practices.

Hinduism

• Hinduism — Hinduism is the major religion of India, centered on traditions of dharma, samsara, moksha, and ritual practice such as puja and samskaras. Its scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, and its festivals include Holi and Diwali, along with observances such as Raksha Bandhan and the use of bhang. It also includes the caste system and reverence for cows.

  • Agama — An agama is a canonical authoritative text in an Indian religious tradition. The term literally means “what has come down,” and it is used especially for sacred collections in Hindu and related sectarian systems.

  • ashram — An ashram is a Hindu hermitage or retreat where a sage lives, often with disciples, sometimes in a forest setting.

  • Ashrama — An ashrama is a Hindu stage of life or hermitage, especially in the sequence of student, householder, forest-dweller, and renunciant. The term appears in discussions of the four life stages and in examples such as Gandhi’s Sabarmati ashram.

  • ashrams — Ashrams are Hindu hermitages or monasteries where gurus live and students pursue spiritual discipline. The term also appears in the Christian Ashram Movement in India.

  • Astrological deities
    • navagraha — The navagraha are the nine planetary deities of Hindu astrology. They include the Sun, Moon, and planets, along with Rahu and Ketu, and they are honored in temple rituals and circumambulations.

  • avatars — In Hinduism, these are the earthly incarnations or manifestations of a deity, especially Vishnu. Vishnu is said to have ten canonical forms, including Rama, Krishna, Matsya, and the prophesied Kalki.

  • bindi — A bindi is the small red dot worn on the forehead by many Hindu women, and sometimes by Jains as well. It is often interpreted as the symbolic third eye and is distinct from the forehead tilaka markings used in some festivals.

  • Castes
    • Brahmins — Brahmins are the highest caste in the Hindu varna system and traditionally the Hindu priestly caste, responsible for Vedic study, ritual performance, and the maintenance of sacred learning. They are linked to the yajñopavita sacred thread and to regional roles in South and Southeast Asian court ritual. Brahmins were central to anti-Brahmin politics in modern India, including the Justice Party, Periyar, and the Vaikom temple struggle.

  • Daksha — Daksha is a Hindu deity and Prajapati associated with ritual sacrifice and with the myth in which Sati is rejected by her father. After Sati’s death, Shiva retaliates by beheading Daksha, and Daksha’s head is later replaced with that of a goat. He is also linked to the story of his twenty-seven daughters marrying Soma, the moon god.

  • Deities

    • Airvata — Airvata is the white elephant mount of the Hindu god Indra. He is typically depicted as a celestial elephant associated with royal power and rain.

    • Durga — The Hindu warrior goddess associated with the defeat of Mahishasura and the festival cycle of Navratri/Navarātri and Dussehra. She is commonly depicted riding a lion or tiger with many arms and is identified as a form of Shakti or Parvati; her forms include Chandraghanta and Skandamata. Kālī is sometimes described as emerging from her forehead in anger.

    • the Ashvins — The Ashvins are the Vedic twin horsemen, healers, and patrons of dawn who appear in the Rigveda and the Mahabharata. They are sons of Surya and are linked to miraculous rescue stories, including giving Vishpala an iron leg.

  • Dharmashastra
    • Manusmriti — The Manusmriti, or Laws of Manu, is a foundational dharmashastra attributed to the sage Manu. It lays out duties, social order, ritual rules, and moral-legal instructions for the varnas, and is often discussed for its rules on caste, gender, and social hierarchy. It later influenced Hindu legal and political thought and was used by the British as a major source for official Hindu law. It is also known for its controversial prescriptions about women and caste, and for being burned in protest by B. R. Ambedkar.

  • Ganesh or Ganesha — Ganesh, or Ganesha, is the elephant-headed Hindu god associated with wisdom and obstacle-removal. He is often shown with a broken tusk and is honored during the Chaturthi festival with offerings of sweets and clay images.

  • Goddesses
    • Parashakti — Parashakti is a Hindu goddess identified with supreme feminine power and sometimes called the Mother of the Trimurti. She is linked to Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma as the divine source behind their cosmic roles.
  • Hindu deities
    • Shiva (The scholar in the leadin is Ananda Coomaraswamy.) — Shiva is a major Hindu god often shown as Nataraja, the Lord of the Dance, with the damaru drum, a flame, and a halo of fire around him. He also appears in iconic Indian sculpture as Ardhanarishvara, with one female half and one male half, and in reliefs such as the Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram.
  • Hindu marks
    • tilaka — Tilaka are Hindu forehead or body markings made with substances such as sandalwood paste or sacred ash. Vaishnava forms include the urdhva pundra, while Shaiva traditions often use tripundra markings of three lines.

  • Hindu temple — A Hindu temple is a sacred building for puja and murti worship, centered on a garbhagriha or “womb chamber” that contains the idol, often with mandapas for gathering and ritual space. Temple layouts are often highly symmetrical, sometimes using an eight-by-eight grid with symbolic cosmic meaning, and may be topped by a shikhara or vimana. Worship commonly includes circumambulation, offerings of prasada, and ritual devotion. Notable examples include Prambanan, Angkor Wat, the Jagannath temple at Puri, and the BAPS Robbinsville complex.

  • Kali — Kali is the fierce Hindu goddess of destruction, time, battle, and the defeat of demons such as Raktabija. She is often treated as an aspect of Durga or Parvati and is associated with shakti; her iconography commonly shows black skin, a garland of skulls or severed heads, weapons, and a tongue outstretched in battle frenzy.

  • Kama Sutra — An ancient Indian treatise attributed to Vatsyayana, best known for its discussion of erotic life, sexual union, courtship, and sexual advice. It is organized into several books and includes chapters on marriage, adornment, and physical techniques. It is named for Kama, the Hindu god of love, and is often associated with desire and sex positions, including named positions such as the Lotus, the Crow, and the Swastika.

  • Krishna

    • Jagannath — Jagannath is a wooden form of Krishna worshiped especially at Puri, where the deity is carried on a huge temple chariot during the Ratha Yatra festival and accompanied by Balabhadra and Subhadra. His Sanskrit name means “lord of the world,” and the Anglicized form of the name gave rise to the word juggernaut, meaning an unstoppable force. Some descriptions say the idol contains the bones and ashes of Krishna.

    • Radha — Radha is the beloved gopi and consort of Krishna in Hindu tradition. She is associated with steadfast devotion, love, and the pastoral world of the cowherd communities surrounding Krishna.

    • Vrindavan — Vrindavan is a sacred North Indian city associated with Krishna and the gopis, and many widows move there to sing bhajans. It is also linked to the ISKCON revivalist controversy around New Vrindaban and Prabhupada’s death.

  • Mantras — Mantras are sacred sounds, phrases, or short repeated utterances used in meditation and devotional practice, especially in Hindu, Buddhist, and related traditions. They are often repeated in japa and may be associated with syllables like Om; examples include the Gayatri mantra, the Hare Krishna mantra, Soham, the Nichiren phrase Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō, and Tibetan om mani padme hum. The word is often glossed as an instrument of thought.
    • mantra — A mantra is a sacred spoken phrase or formula used in Hinduism, Buddhism, and related traditions for meditation and devotion. Examples include Om, the Gayatri mantra, and Om mani padme hum, and the practice is often linked with repeated recitation and mala beads.
  • monastic titles
    • swami — A swami is a Hindu monastic title meaning master or lord. It is used for religious leaders such as Vivekananda and Prabhupada.

  • murti — A murti is a physical representation of a Hindu deity used in worship and installed in temples through prana-pratistha. These images or idols may be bathed in abhisheka rites, viewed through darshan, and carried in festivals such as Ratha Yatra.

  • prasada — Prasada is the Hindu offering of food or other material goods to a deity that is then shared and eaten by worshippers. It is especially associated with temple ritual and with larger feasts such as mahaprasada at Jagannath. A famous special form is the Jagannath Temple’s mahaprasada, which includes many food items.

  • Purusharthas — The four ends of man in Hinduism are dharma, artha, kama, and moksha. They are often discussed alongside ashrama, the life stages that shape which goal is emphasized at different points in life.

  • Ramakrishna — Ramakrishna was a 19th-century Indian mystic and priest of Dakshineswar whose teachings inspired Swami Vivekananda and the Ramakrishna Mission.

  • Ramakrishna Paramahamsa — Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was a 19th-century Bengali mystic who taught that Kali is the universal mother. His disciple Swami Vivekananda later carried his ideas into the Ramakrishna Mission and onto the world stage.

  • Ramayana
    • Lakshmana — Lakshmana is Rama’s younger and loyal brother in the Ramayana, the husband of Urmila, and an avatar of Shesha. He accompanies Rama and Sita into exile, cuts off Surpanakha’s nose, helps defeat Ravana, and is remembered for slaying Indrajit. He is later saved by Hanuman after being wounded in battle.

  • Rudra — Rudra is a Vedic storm, hunting, and war deity who is later identified with the fierce aspect of Shiva. Myths link him to the Maruts, the god Bhaga, and a sacrificial punishment of Prajapati, and he is also associated with fertility brought by rain.

  • sacred plants
    • plants — In Hindu practice, sacred plants are used in ritual offerings, medicine, and purification, and some varieties are especially revered. Examples include tulsi, neem, banyan, bodhi, bael, and ritual grasses such as darbha and kuśa.
      • fig tree — The fig tree is a biblical plant associated with Adam and Eve’s leaves, Jesus’s cursing of the barren tree, and the parable in which a gardener begs for one more year. It also appears in prophecy and Revelation imagery, making it a frequent clue in Bible-based tossups.
    • tulsi — Tulsi, or holy basil, is a sacred Hindu plant associated with devotion to Vishnu and Lakshmi. Its leaves and wood are used in devotional practice, including prayer beads made from tulsi wood. It is ritually married to Shaligram during Tulsi Vivah and is often grown in courtyards and in vrindavans. It is associated with figures like Tulsidas.
  • sacred rivers
    • Ganges River — The Ganges, also called the Ganga, is the sacred and most holy river of Hinduism, a major river of northern India and Bangladesh, and a personified goddess in Hindu tradition. It is associated with pilgrimage bathing, cremation ashes, and sites such as Haridwar, Varanasi, Allahabad, and the Kumbh Mela. In myth it descends from heaven through Shiva’s hair after Bhagiratha’s penance, rises in the Himalayas, and flows past northern India into the Bay of Bengal, forming part of the great delta system in Bangladesh, including the Sundarbans.

  • Vaikuntha — Vaikuntha is the heavenly abode of Vishnu in Hindu tradition. It is linked to the descent of the Ganges, which is said to flow from the god’s feet.

  • Vaishnavism — The major Hindu tradition centered on worship of Vishnu as the supreme deity, including Vishnu and his avatars. It is characterized by bhakti devotion and includes branches such as the Sri and Gaudiya traditions, the Alvars, and groups such as ISKCON; associated symbols and terms include the conch, tilak, Vaikuntha, and Lakshmi.
    • Bhagavata Purana — The Bhagavata Purana is a major Vaishnava Purana centered on Vishnu’s avatars, especially Krishna, and is especially important to ISKCON and related devotional traditions. It includes the tale of Krishna’s youth and the Raslila, and it was recited by Shukadeva to the dying king Parikshit.
  • Varna system

    • Kshatriyas — The Kshatriyas are the warrior caste in the Hindu varna system, the class Krishna tells Arjuna to fulfill his duty for in the Gita. Parashurama is said to have destroyed this class of warriors repeatedly after avenging his father.

    • Sudras — The sudras are the laboring caste in the traditional Hindu varna system. They are commonly described as peasants and workers, ranked above the untouchables in the old caste hierarchy.

    • Varnas — Varnas are the four hereditary social ranks of traditional Hindu society. The system is associated with the Rigveda and places the shudras at the lowest level.

  • Veda — The Vedas are the ancient, authorless scriptures of Hinduism, including the Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas. They form the oldest layer of Hindu literature and are treated as revealed shruti text.

  • Vedic deities
    • Mitra — Mitra is an early Hindu and Vedic deity associated with friendship, contracts, and partnership with Varuna. He appears in ancient Indian religious tradition as a protector of social bonds and solemn agreements.
  • Vedic sages
    • Bhrigu — Bhrigu is a Vedic sage associated with the Law Code of Manu and with early Hindu astrology. In one legend he tests the gods’ greatness and curses Brahma, explaining why Brahma is not commonly worshiped.
  • Vedic tradition
    • Rishi — A rishi is a Hindu sage, traditionally credited with receiving, transmitting, and sometimes composing sacred knowledge such as the Vedic hymns. Rishis are central figures in the Vedic tradition of Hinduism, and traditional lists include the seven great rishis such as Vishvamitra, Vasishta, Kasyapa, and Gautama. They are also linked to gotra lineages and to mythic episodes in Hindu tradition.

  • vibhuti — Vibhuti is the sacred ash used by many Shiva devotees, especially as the three horizontal lines on the forehead. It is associated with cremation, the Ganges pilgrimage at Varanasi, and purification rites in Hindu and related traditions.

  • yogas — Yogas are Hindu spiritual paths or disciplines, especially the karma, bhakti, raja, and jnana forms. The term also covers physical and meditative practices such as hatha and raja yoga.

  • Yoni — The yoni is the Hindu symbol and ritual counterpart associated with the lingam. It appears in clues about Shiva temples, paired sacred iconography, and the Amarnath ice formation.
    • wombs — In Hindu ritual and symbolism, yoni refers to the womb or vulva as a feminine source of life. The term appears in Tantric diagrams, temple architecture, and images associated with Kamakhya and Lajja Gauri.
  • yugas — In Hindu cosmology, yugas are the repeating ages of the world cycle, typically counted as four declining eras from Satya to Kali. They are linked to the dharma bull and end with the apocalyptic arrival of Kalki.

• Origins — no single founder; among the world’s oldest living religious traditions, with roots in the Indus Valley civilization and the Vedic culture of ancient India (c. 1500 BCE and earlier).

• Trimurti — the “Hindu Trinity”: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver), and Shiva (destroyer/transformer). It is often depicted as a three-faced or combined divine form, and later tradition links it to cosmic symbolism and earlier threefold divine groupings in the Puranic imagination.

• Vishnu — preserver deity; appears in ten principal avatars including Rama, Krishna, and the future Kalki. Devotees are called Vaishnavas.
  • Avatars of Vishnu — The ten incarnations of Vishnu through which the Hindu preserver god appears in the world. The traditional list, called the Dashavatara, includes Rama, Krishna, Narasimha, Vamana, Parashurama, and Kalki; Narasimha is the half-man half-lion who destroys the demon Hiranyakashipu, and Kalki is the future horse-riding figure. The avatars are tied to epic stories such as the Bhagavad Gita and the rescue of Sita.
    • Rama and Krishna — Rama and Krishna are two of the most celebrated avatars of Vishnu in Hindu tradition. Rama is the prince of Ayodhya who kills Ravana, while Krishna is the prince of Dwaraka who defeats the tyrant Kamsa.
  • The Preserver — In Hinduism, Vishnu is the Preserver in the Trimurti, alongside Brahma the Creator and Shiva the Destroyer. This role emphasizes protection and maintenance rather than creation or destruction.
• Shiva — deity of destruction and renewal; also worshiped as the cosmic dancer (Nataraja) and the great ascetic; the lingam is his primary symbol. Devotees are called Shaivas.
  • linga — A linga, or lingam, is a Hindu symbol associated with Shiva, often represented as a smooth pillar or phallic emblem in worship. It is commonly paired with the yoni as a symbol of Shakti and appears in myths where Shiva is worshipped as a blazing column without beginning or end. Linga shrines are ritually bathed with offerings, and some are classified by temple tradition as jyotir or svayambhuva forms. Famous examples include the Amarnath ice formation, the twelve revered jyotirlingas such as those at Somnath and Ujjain, and shrines like Mahakaleshwar.
    • lingams — Lingams are phallic symbols of Shiva, often paired with yonis in Hindu worship. They are especially associated with Shaivite devotion, including the ishtalinga tradition founded by Basava.
  • Nataraja — Nataraja is the dancing form of Shiva, shown performing the tandava within a ring of flames. This iconography often includes a drum, fire, a snake, and Shiva crushing the dwarf demon Apasmara.

• Devi / Shakti — the divine feminine principle; manifested as Durga, Kali, Parvati (Shiva’s consort), Saraswati (goddess of learning), and Lakshmi (goddess of wealth).

• Ganesha — elephant-headed son of Shiva and Parvati; deity of beginnings and remover of obstacles.

  • a rat — A rat is the animal mount associated with Ganesh in Hindu tradition. In other contexts, the same answer can clue an informant or traitor by metaphor.

  • Ganesha’s elephant head — Ganesha is the Hindu deity famous for his elephant head, which is one of his most identifying features. Myths explain how he gained this head and his broken tusk, and his image is often associated with sweets, obstacles, and the body part Shiva gave him.

• Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra — the four varnas (social classes) described in the Rigveda; the varna system is distinct from the more complex jati (caste) system.

• Yoga — a range of spiritual and physical disciplines. Classical Yoga (Raja Yoga) is codified in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras; other paths include Jnana Yoga (knowledge), Bhakti Yoga (devotion), and Karma Yoga (selfless action). It is associated with practices such as asana, pranayama, dhyana, and samadhi, and its other major forms include hatha yoga. In modern usage, yoga is also widely practiced as exercise.

  • Asana — Asana refers to the physical postures used in yoga and meditation, a term derived from Sanskrit for sitting or seat. Traditional systems of yoga describe many named poses, including the Sun Salutation sequence and postures such as Warrior and Downward Dog.

  • asanas
    • lotus position — The lotus position, or padmasana, is a meditative seated posture in which each foot rests on the opposite thigh. It is traditionally used in Hindu and Buddhist iconography for figures such as Shiva and Jain Tirthankaras.

  • Jnana yoga — Jnana yoga is the Hindu path of salvation through knowledge and discrimination. Practitioners seek realization of atman and Brahman through detachment, discernment, and other disciplines associated with liberation.

  • karma yoga — Karma yoga is the Hindu path of action, emphasizing selfless duty without attachment to reward. The broader word karma also refers to the moral force of deeds that shape future rebirths.

  • kundalini — Kundalini is the coiled spiritual energy in Hindu and yogic tradition, often described as lying at the base of the spine. In practice it is associated with awakening energy through the chakras.

  • raja yoga — Raja yoga is a school of Hindu philosophy based on Patanjali and associated with meditative discipline. In Western usage, the term is often applied to physical yoga exercises separated from their spiritual context.
• Tantra — a diverse body of esoteric texts and ritual practices found in Hindu and Buddhist traditions (and to a lesser extent Jainism); emphasizes the use of mantra, ritual, and sometimes transgressive acts to harness divine energy (shakti) for liberation; key texts include the Agamas and Tantras; in Vajrayana Buddhism, Tantric practices involve visualization of deities and use of mandalas; in the West the term is often misunderstood as referring solely to sexual practices. It is also associated with subtle-body practices such as chakras and kundalini, with Shingon Buddhism in Japan and Tibetan Buddhism, and with Hindu traditions centered on Shiva and Shakti. Its teachings often stress realization of the divine through disciplined practice rather than ordinary devotion alone.
  • Kuṇḍalinī — Kuṇḍalinī is the coiled spiritual force at the base of the spine, often imagined as a serpent. Tantric yoga traditions aim to awaken it and raise it through the chakras toward union of masculine and feminine energy.
• Daiva — in Vedic and early Hindu thought, a class of divine beings (deva/daiva) associated with cosmic order and the heavenly realm; cognate with the Avestan term daeva, which in Zoroastrianism was inverted to mean demonic beings, illustrating the divergence between the Indo-Iranian religious traditions.

Major Hindu schools

• Advaita Vedanta — non-dualist school founded by Adi Shankaracharya (8th–9th century CE); holds that Atman and Brahman are identical; the apparent multiplicity of the world is maya (illusion). It is often illustrated with the rope-and-snake analogy and the Upanishadic formula tat tvam asi.

  • Adi Shankara — Adi Shankara was the Hindu philosopher who systematized Advaita Vedanta and taught that Brahman alone is real and the self is not separate from it. He wrote the Brahma Sutra Bhashya and founded monastic centers and orders across India.

  • Adi Shankaracharya — Adi Shankaracharya, also known as Shankara, was the major systematizer of Advaita Vedanta. He is associated with Upadesasahasri, Bhaja Govindam, and the tradition of founding four monasteries across India.

• Vishishtadvaita — qualified non-dualism articulated by Ramanuja (11th–12th century); the individual soul and world are real but subordinate to Brahman/Vishnu.

• Dvaita — dualist school of Madhvacharya (13th century); sharply distinguishes the individual soul from a personal God (Vishnu).

• Shaivism — traditions centered on Shiva as the supreme deity; includes Kashmir Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta. It is commonly associated with the lingam, ash on the forehead, the Nayanars, and the Pashupata tradition.

• Shaktism — traditions centered on Devi as the supreme reality. Shaktism is the Hindu tradition centered on Shakti, Devi, or Mahadevi as the supreme divine feminine power. Clues often involve possession by the goddess, Tripura Sundari, or the Tridevi.
  • Shakti — Shakti, also treated as Devi or the Great Goddess, is the divine feminine power worshiped in Shaktism. Durga, Kali, and Parvati are understood as aspects of her, and she is linked to tantric traditions such as Sri Vidya and the Mahavidyas.
• ISKCON — the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, a modern Vaishnava movement founded by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (1966). It was founded in New York City by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in 1966. The movement centers on Gaudiya Vaishnavism, especially devotional chanting of Krishna’s names and the sixteen-word Maha Mantra, and is associated with public kirtan, the Jagannath chariot festival, Bhagavad Gita As It Is, and the Food for Life program.

  • A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada — A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada founded ISKCON, the Hare Krishna movement, and became its central devotional teacher. He is also known for his translations of Hindu scriptures and for the later succession controversies surrounding initiation and authority.

  • Swami Prabhupada — A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada founded ISKCON in New York City in 1965 and spread the Hare Krishna movement. He translated works such as The Nectar of Devotion and emphasized sankirtana and chanting the Hare Krishna mantra.

Further Figures, Narratives, and Practices

• fertility symbols
  • phallus — A phallus is the male sexual organ and a recurring fertility symbol in mythology and ritual. It appears in symbols such as the fascinum and in cultic imagery for figures like Priapus, Shiva’s lingam, and the Vestal Virgins’ charms.
• Sacred mountains
  • Mount Kailash — Mount Kailash is a sacred Himalayan mountain in Tibet associated with Shiva and Parvati and revered by Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains. Traditions link it to Ravana’s punishment, ritual pilgrimage circuits, and its role as a cosmic axis; one Hindu tradition also says Shiva and Parvati play dice there during Diwali.
• Hindu deities

  • Devi — Devi is the general feminine divine principle in Hinduism and the name used for female divinities in a broad sense. She is associated with forms such as Parvati, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, and Shakti.

  • Lakshmi is a divinity of fortune. The others are divinities of love — Lakshmi is the Hindu goddess of fortune, prosperity, and abundance. In lists with Freya, Ishtar, and Venus, she is the one who does not belong because the others are goddesses of love.

  • Sani — Sani is a Hindu god associated with a deadly gaze that can petrify or burn to ashes those he looks at. In Ganesh legends, his glance beheads the young deity, leading Brahma to replace the head with that of an elephant.

  • Yamaraja — Yamaraja is the Hindu god of death and ruler of the underworld, associated with judgment of the dead and the southern direction. He appears in later Hindu practice and Buddhist myth as a deity honored during Diwali and in stories of the afterlife.

• Hindu goddesses
  • Maa Durga — Maa Durga is the martial Hindu goddess associated with the slaying of Mahishasura and the festival of Durga Puja. She is commonly shown with many arms, riding a tiger or lion, and is linked to the power of Kali.
• Hindu gods
  • Kubera — Kubera is the Hindu god of wealth and guardian of treasures, often identified with Vaisravana in Buddhist tradition. He is portrayed as the ruler of yakshas and the half-brother of Ravana.
• Yoga styles
  • Bikram yoga — Bikram yoga is a style of hot yoga done as a set sequence in a heated room, associated with a 90-minute class and 26 postures. It is named for Bikram Choudhury, whose fame and later notoriety became central clues about the practice.
• Hindu devotionalism
  • bhakti — Bhakti is the Hindu path of devotional practice centered on loving personal devotion to a chosen deity, often contrasted with detached knowledge or ritual alone and framed alongside karma and jñana yoga. Its literary and devotional traditions include saint-poets and texts such as the Alvars, the Nayanars, Mirabai, Tulsidas’s Ramcaritmanas, and the songs and hymns of the Bhakti movement.
    • Radharani — Radharani is the chief gopi and beloved of Krishna in Hindu devotion, especially in the Gita Govinda and the bhakti traditions centered on Vrindavan. She is often treated as an avatar or manifestation of Lakshmi and is paired with Krishna in ras lila stories.
• Hindu reform movements
  • Brahmo Samaj — The Brahmo Samaj was a major Hindu reform movement founded by Ram Mohan Roy in Calcutta. It rejected caste rigidity and Vedic authority, and later split over how much Christianity and other reforms should influence its theology.
    • Raja Ram Mohan Roy — Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a major Indian reformer remembered as the father of modern India and a founder of the Brahmo Sabha. He opposed sati, promoted monotheistic Hindu reform, and helped found the Anglo-Hindu School in Calcutta.
• Hindu mythology
  • Krishna
    • Kaliya — Kaliya is a naga from Hindu tradition who poisoned the Yamuna River near Vrindavan. Krishna defeats him by dancing on his heads, after which Kaliya is forced to leave for Ramanaka.
  • Nandi — Nandi is the sacred bull of Shiva, commonly shown as Shiva’s mount and as a temple guardian outside Shiva shrines. He is also associated with leading the ganas and with righteousness in Hindu mythology.

Jainism

• Origins — an ancient Indian religion; traditionally traced through a lineage of 24 Tirthankaras (“ford-makers” or liberated teachers); the historical Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE or 599–527 BCE, though dates are debated) is considered the 24th and most recent Tirthankara.

• Mahavira — also called Vardhamana; an older contemporary of the Buddha; attained kevala (omniscience) and taught the Jain path. He is traditionally regarded as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of Jainism, a renunciant who left his princely life and lived as an ascetic in the 6th or 5th century BCE. Jain tradition associates him with the three jewels of Jain teaching, ahimsa, anekantavada, karma, and enlightenment beneath a sala tree; his teachings were later compiled in the Kalpasutra tradition by his chief disciple, Indrabhuti Gautama, and he gathered disciples during his years of wandering.

• Ahimsa — non-violence toward all living beings; the supreme principle of Jainism and also central to Hinduism and Buddhism; Jains are strictly vegetarian and many take care to avoid harm to insects and microorganisms; Gandhi drew on this principle in his political philosophy.

• Anekantavada — the doctrine of many-sidedness or non-absolutism; truth is complex and can be viewed from multiple perspectives. It is often illustrated by the blind men and the elephant and is paired with syadvada and nayavada.

• Syadvada — the theory of qualified assertion; every claim should be prefaced with “in some respects” (syat).

• Three Jewels of Jainism — right faith (samyak darshana), right knowledge (samyak jnana), right conduct (samyak charitra).

• Karma (Jain view) — in Jainism, karma is a subtle physical matter that attaches to the soul through actions; liberation requires shedding all karma.

• Digambara and Shvetambara — the two main sects; Digambara monks practice nudity as a sign of renunciation; Shvetambara monks wear white garments.

• Jain Agamas — the canonical scriptures, though the Digambara sect holds the original texts have been lost.

• Tirthankaras — the 24 “ford-makers” who have crossed the ocean of existence and taught the path to liberation; only Mahavira (24th) and Parshvanatha (23rd) are considered historical; Rishabhadeva (Adinatha) is the 1st Tirthankara. They are also called Jinas.
  • Rishabha — First Jain tirthankara and legendary founder figure of the early Jain tradition. Traditional accounts describe him as the son of King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi and the father of many children. He is linked with the Ikshvaku dynasty, the festival of Akshaya Tritiya, and the great pilgrimage site of Palitana.

• Jain cosmology — the universe is eternal, self-subsisting, and cyclic; it is divided into loka (inhabited universe) and aloka (uninhabited space); no creator God; liberated souls (siddhas) reside at the summit of the universe, Siddhashila.

• Parshvanatha — the 23rd Tirthankara; considered historically plausible; taught a fourfold ethical code that Mahavira expanded by adding celibacy as a fifth vow. Parshvanatha is a historically plausible figure in Jainism and is credited with teaching a fourfold restraint that Mahavira later expanded into the five great vows.

Buddhism

• Buddhism — Buddhism is the religion founded by Siddhartha Gautama and organized around the Four Noble Truths, the Middle Way, and the Eightfold Path. Its major traditions include Theravada, Mahayana, and Zen, and Tibetan Buddhism recognizes the Dalai Lama as a reincarnated leader. Its spread is often associated with Ashoka, the Bactrian and Kushan empires, and the Silk Road.

  • 969 Movement — The 969 Movement is a Burmese Buddhist anti-Muslim movement associated with Ashin Wirathu. It was criticized after riots in Rakhine and is linked to anti-Islamic numerology and Rohingya persecution rhetoric.

  • Anatta — Anatta, or anatman, is the Buddhist doctrine of not-self, denying an everlasting soul or permanent essence. It is one of Buddhism’s central teachings alongside impermanence and suffering.

  • arhats — Arhats are enlightened figures in Buddhism who have attained nirvana by eliminating the fetters that bind rebirth. Theravada tradition especially emphasizes them, and later traditions contrast their status with that of bodhisattvas. They are also associated with traditions of sixteen or eighteen revered disciples.

  • Buddhas — Enlightened beings in Buddhism, especially Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha. Traditions such as Theravada and Mahayana recognize figures such as Amitabha and Maitreya as major examples of this status; associated details include the Bodhi tree, the Four Noble Truths, the Jataka tales, and the distinction between buddhas and bodhisattvas.

    • Enlightened One — Buddha literally means the Enlightened One. The title refers to one who has awakened to spiritual truth rather than to a personal name.

    • Maitreya Buddha — Maitreya is the future Buddha in Buddhist tradition, expected to restore the dharma after the present age has declined. East Asian tradition sometimes identifies him with the smiling, fat monk Budai.

  • Buddhas and bodhisattvas
    • Maitreya — Maitreya is the future Buddha of Buddhist tradition, often identified with the bodhisattva who will appear after Gautama’s teachings have been forgotten. He is associated with Tushita Heaven, a water vessel and ribboned topknot in art, and with the figure Budai in some traditions. He is also linked to Yogacara through Asanga and is treated in some Theosophical and popular Chinese contexts as a messianic successor. Clues may refer to his name meaning friendliness or to his role as a coming Buddha.

  • Buddhist — Buddhist refers to the religion and its followers centered on the teachings associated with the Buddha. It can also describe people, beliefs, or practices connected to Buddhism.

  • Buddhist art
    • statues of the Buddha — Statues of the Buddha are revered Buddhist images found across Asia and beyond, from the Emerald Buddha to the giant cliff carvings at Bamiyan. They can depict Buddha seated, standing, or reclining in parinirvana.
  • Buddhist art and iconography
    • Buddha statues — Buddha statues, or buddharupa, depict Siddhartha Gautama in many poses and styles, from Gandhara to massive cliff carvings. Quizbowl clues often point to the Bamiyan Buddhas, the Emerald Buddha in Bangkok, and Buddhist cave sites such as Longmen, Mogao, and Seokguram.
  • Buddhist cosmology
    • pretas — In Buddhist cosmology, pretas are the hungry ghosts: beings condemned by greed and insatiable desire, often depicted as restless dead who suffer intense hunger. In Chinese and broader East Asian religious traditions they may be thought to arise from violent deaths or neglect by descendants. They are honored during festivals such as Zhongyuan, when food is offered and lanterns are floated to guide them; they also appear in stories of merit transfer and ancestral neglect.
      • preta — Preta are Buddhist hungry ghosts, punished by endless craving in a miserable afterlife. They are often described as thin beings with tiny mouths and insatiable appetites for repulsive things.

  • Buddhist councils — Buddhist councils, or sangiti, were assemblies called to settle doctrinal and disciplinary disputes in the early Buddhist community. The tradition places the first at Rajagrha under Mahakashyapa, and later councils are often tied to major schisms and a fifth-century Burmese gathering in Yangon.

  • Buddhist crisis
    • Buddhists — Buddhists in South Vietnam were persecuted under Ngô Đình Diệm, prompting protests, self-immolation, and international outrage. The Buddhist crisis included the famous self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức and violent crackdowns on demonstrations and pagoda raids.
  • Buddhist figures
    • Queen Māyā of Shakya — Queen Māyā of Shakya was the Buddha’s mother and is said to have given birth to him from her side in Lumbini. She is honored on Vesak and appears in Buddhist birth narratives involving a six-tusked white elephant.
  • Buddhist saints and enlightened beings
    • arhat — In Theravada Buddhism, an arhat (Pali: arahant) is a perfected being who has attained enlightenment or nirvana, completed the path by abandoning the fetters that bind beings to rebirth, and will not be reborn. The term means a “worthy one,” and the Buddha is often described as the first of these; it is also contrasted with the bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism.
  • Chan/Zen Buddhism
    • Bodhidharma — Bodhidharma is the legendary Indian monk regarded as the First Patriarch of Chan and a founder of Zen Buddhism in China. Clues about him mention nine years of wall-facing meditation, the Daruma doll, Huike’s snowy self-mutilation, and the tea plant arising from his eyelids.
  • Chinese Buddhism
    • Xuanzang — Xuanzang is the Buddhist monk whose journey to India inspired the historical basis for the Journey to the West figure Tang Sanzang. He wrote the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions after traveling through India for many years and is remembered in later legend as the monk protected by Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and Sha Wujing.
  • Chinese Buddhist schools
    • Tiantai — Tiantai is a Chinese Buddhist school founded by Zhiyi and named for a mountain in Zhejiang; its Japanese counterpart is Tendai. The tradition emphasizes the Lotus Sutra and doctrines such as the Threefold Truth, and it later influenced Nichiren Buddhism.
  • Disciples of the Buddha
    • Ananda — Ananda was the Buddha’s attendant and a famed guardian of the Dhamma remembered for his extraordinary memory. Pure Land Buddhists also identify him with a role in Amitabha’s Pure Land, and he is associated with the First Buddhist Council.

  • dukkha — Dukkha is the Buddhist term for suffering, unsatisfactoriness, or stress in ordinary existence. It is the First Noble Truth and is linked to craving (tanha) as a cause. It is one of the three marks of existence, along with impermanence and non-self, and its cessation is nirvana; Buddhist teaching also connects it to the conditions of samsara.

  • Early disciples
    • Devadatta — Devadatta was a cousin of Gautama Buddha who became infamous for trying to murder him and for causing a schism in the monastic community. Buddhist texts portray him as a figure of grave offense whose attempted attacks include the drunken elephant Nalagiri.

  • Gautama — Gautama is the family name shared by Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, and by the sage Aksapada Gautama, the traditional founder of the Nyaya school. The name therefore points both to Buddhist and Indian philosophical contexts.

  • Heart Sutra — The Heart Sutra is a short Mahayana Buddhist scripture centered on emptiness, famously stating that form is emptiness and emptiness is form. In it, Avalokiteśvara teaches Sariputra at Vulture Peak and concludes with the mantra “gone, gone, gone beyond.” It is recited in Zen liturgy and has been commented on by the Dalai Lama. It is associated with Avalokitesvara and the liberation of Sariputra through meditation.

  • Japanese Buddhism
    • Kūkai — The Japanese monk and scholar Kūkai, known posthumously as Kōbō Daishi, founded the Shingon school of Buddhism in Japan and was a major figure in esoteric Japanese religion. He studied esoteric Buddhism in China, is linked to Mount Kōya, the Shikoku pilgrimage, and the temple complex designed around the Mandala of the Two Realms, and is credited with teachings that linked Buddhism and Shinto in Ryōbu Shinto. He is also traditionally credited with inventing the kana script.
  • Mahayana Buddhism — Mahayana Buddhism, the “Great Vehicle,” is one of the two major branches of Buddhism alongside Theravada. It emphasizes bodhisattvas, emptiness, the Heart and Lotus Sutras, and doctrines such as trikaya and upaya. Major East Asian schools including Zen, Pure Land, Nichiren, and Tendai fall under it.

    • Avalokiteshvara — Avalokiteshvara is the bodhisattva of compassion in Mahayana Buddhism, known in East Asia as Guanyin. He appears in many forms, including thousand-armed and eleven-faced versions, and is associated with the mantra om mani padme hum.

    • bodhisattvas — Bodhisattvas are Mahayana Buddhist beings who postpone final enlightenment, or final nirvana, in order to help others reach awakening. They are associated with compassion, vows, the bhumi stages of spiritual progress, the paramitas, and figures such as Avalokiteshvara, Ksitigarbha, Guanyin, and Maitreya.
      • Guan Yin — The Chinese East Asian bodhisattva of compassion, identified with Avalokiteshvara and also called Guan Shi Yin. She is often depicted in white robes with a willow branch, a water jar or vase of water, and sometimes a lotus. Guan Yin is especially revered by sailors, is known in Japan as Kannon, and appears in legends under the name Miao Shan; some traditions link her to a princess who renounces luxury in pursuit of enlightenment.

    • Buddha-nature — Buddha-nature is the Mahayana idea that all beings have the potential for enlightenment, often expressed by the Sanskrit terms tathagatagarbha or buddhadhatu. Zen and Chan texts use it to frame koans such as Zhaozhou’s answer of “mu” to whether a dog has this quality.

    • Buddhist doctrines
      • Trikaya — Trikaya is the Mahayana Buddhist doctrine that a Buddha has three bodies. Its standard forms are the dharma body, enjoyment body, and physical or transformation body.

    • Lotus Sūtra — The Lotus Sūtra is a foundational Mahāyāna Buddhist scripture named for the white lotus flower. It teaches the one vehicle to Buddhahood and skillful means, and is associated with Nichiren and Tendai traditions. It includes the famous parable of the burning house, and the Dragon King’s daughter attains Buddhahood in it.

    • Madhyamaka — Madhyamaka is the Buddhist Middle Way school founded by Nāgārjuna. It is associated with śūnyatā, the denial of inherent essence in dharmas, and is contrasted with Yogacara within Mahayana philosophy.

      • śūnyatā — Śūnyatā is the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness, closely tied to non-self and the lack of intrinsic existence. It is central to Madhyamaka philosophy and the Heart Sutra, where form is said to be empty. It is also discussed in the Kyoto school and can be translated as voidness, non-self, or lack of intrinsic nature.

      • emptiness — Emptiness, or śūnyatā, is the Buddhist and philosophical idea that things lack inherent essence. It is central to Madhyamaka thought and appears in the Heart Sutra’s claim that form and emptiness are inseparable.

    • Perfection of Wisdom Sutras — The Perfection of Wisdom Sutras are a central Mahayana Buddhist corpus, including the Heart Sutra. They teach that wisdom and even the attainment of bodhisattva-hood are ultimately empty or nonexistent in the conventional sense.

    • The Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sutra — The Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sutra is a central Mahayana Buddhist text on emptiness, especially the emptiness of the five skandhas. It is famous for the line “form is emptiness; emptiness is form” and the mantra “gate gate paragate parasamgate bodhi svaha.”
  • Mahayana schools
    • Tendai — Tendai was a major Japanese Buddhist school centered on Mount Hiei and associated with Saichō, Ennin, and Enchin. It sought to synthesize earlier traditions and became a powerful force in Heian-period Buddhism, later rivaled by Shingon.

  • Mara — Mara is the Buddhist demon of illusion and temptation who sends his daughters to seduce the Buddha and tries to disrupt his meditation under the bodhi tree. He is also portrayed as a powerful deity associated with lightning and destructive attacks on the Buddha.

  • merit — In Buddhism, merit is the wholesome karmic credit gained through good deeds and generosity. It can be transferred to the deceased and is often accumulated through almsgiving, rituals, and merit-making ceremonies.

  • narakas — Narakas are the Buddhist hell realms, or nirayas, where beings suffer according to karma after death. Some are depicted as intensely cold places, with suffering lasting for vast spans of time.

  • Plum Village Tradition — The Plum Village Tradition is the mindfulness-centered Buddhist community founded by Thich Nhat Hanh and associated with engaged Buddhism. It takes its name from Plum Village in France and uses a simplified set of monastic precepts.

  • Schools
    • Hinayana and Mahayana — Hinayana and Mahayana are the two main branches traditionally named in introductory discussions of Buddhism.

  • Shingon — Shingon is the esoteric Japanese Buddhist school founded by Kūkai on Mount Kōya in the early ninth century. It emphasizes union with Vairocana Buddha and is linked with later theories that Buddhist deities manifested as kami.

  • Shingon Buddhism — Shingon Buddhism is Kūkai’s esoteric Japanese Buddhist sect, associated with the dual mandalas of the Womb World and Diamond World and the central devotion to Mahavairocana. It is closely linked to Mount Koya, hiragana tradition, and rituals such as the Kechien Kanjo flower-drop ceremony.

  • Shwedagon Pagoda — The Shwedagon Pagoda is the great golden stupa in Yangon, Myanmar, associated by legend with relics of the Buddha and topped by a diamond-studded spire. It has long been a major Buddhist pilgrimage site and was a focal point of anti-government monk protests during the Saffron Revolution.

  • suffering — Suffering, or dukkha, is the First Noble Truth of Buddhism and one of the three marks of existence. It refers to the pervasive unsatisfactoriness of conditioned life, which Buddhist practice seeks to end through enlightenment and nirvana.

  • Symbols
    • Dharmachakra — The Dharmachakra is a Buddhist symbol known as the Dharma Wheel or Wheel of Law. Its eight spokes represent the Noble Eightfold Path.

  • Tara — Tara is a Sanskrit name meaning “star” that appears in Hindu myth, Buddhist devotion, and popular culture, from a monkey king’s wife in the Ramayana to a goddess in tantric Buddhism. In Buddhism, Tara is often represented in green or white forms and is treated as a bodhisattva or female deity associated with compassion and enlightenment.

  • Joan Halifax — Joan Halifax is an author and Buddhist practitioner known for writing on death, shamanism, and spiritual life. She founded the Ojai Foundation in California and is often described as a successor to Joseph Campbell in comparative spirituality.

  • Thai New Year
    • Songkran — Songkran is the Thai New Year festival held in April, famous for water fights, temple cleansing, and related public celebrations. Its name comes from a Sanskrit word for passage or transformation, and the holiday is connected to the sun’s entry into Aries.

  • the Bodhi tree — The Bodhi tree is the sacred fig under which the Buddha attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya after meditation. It is often identified with Ficus religiosa. It is linked to the Earth-witness gesture, the attack and temptation of Mara, the Mahabodhi Temple, Bodhi Day, and the Diamond Throne at the pilgrimage site in Bihar. Later Buddhist revival efforts associated it with Anagarika Dharmapala. Buddhist texts such as the Platform Sutra use it in metaphors for the mind, and Huineng’s poetry contest and the story of Sujata also recur in connection with it.

  • The Middle Way — The Middle Way is the Buddhist path that avoids the extremes of indulgence and austerity. In Nāgārjuna’s philosophy, it is tied to dependent origination and the doctrine of emptiness.

  • the Tathagata — The Tathagata is an honorific by which the Buddha refers to himself in the Pali Canon. It can mean the “thus-gone one” and is linked to enlightened understanding and truthful speech.

  • Three Jewels — The Three Jewels, or Triratna, are Buddhism’s Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha, the three refuges in Buddhism. Taking refuge in them is a foundational Buddhist commitment.

  • Vajrayana Buddhism — Vajrayana Buddhism is the tantric or Diamond Way branch of Buddhism. It emphasizes mantras, rituals, initiatory vows, and practices such as deity yoga, and Tibetan and Shingon Buddhism are its best-known forms.
    • Tantric — Tantric Buddhism is the esoteric form of Buddhism associated with Tibet, Mongolia, and the Dalai Lama, often called Lamaism in older clues. It is commonly identified by its emphasis on mantras, ritual practice, and other folk-religious elements rather than by the mainstream Buddhist schools.

  • vehicles — Mahayana means the ‘greater vehicle,’ while Hinayana means the ‘lesser vehicle,’ terms used for branches of Buddhism. The word vehicle here refers to a means of spiritual transport or conveyance.

  • Virtues
    • Four Boundless States — The Four Boundless States are the Buddhist virtues of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. They are treated as meditative and ethical ideals on the path toward nirvana.
      • metta — Metta is the Theravada Buddhist virtue of loving-kindness and one of the four brahmaviharas. It is cultivated in chants and meditations that wish happiness and safety for all beings.
  • Zen — Zen, also called Chan in Chinese contexts, is a Buddhist tradition centered on zazen and koan practice. Its clues often mention the flower sermon, the Blue Cliff Record, the Gateless Gate, and the Rinzai and Soto schools.

    • The Flower Sermon — The Flower Sermon is the Buddhist story in which the Buddha silently held up a flower before his disciples, and only Mahakasyapa responded by smiling. Zen tradition treats it as the origin of a direct transmission of enlightenment from master to student outside the scriptures.

    • Zazen Meditation — Zazen is the seated meditation central to Zen Buddhism, especially in the Soto school. Dogen described it as “non-thinking” and emphasized it over the Rinzai practice of reciting koans while sitting.

    • Zen koans — Zen koans are short paradoxical stories or sayings used in Buddhism, especially in Zen traditions, to push students toward enlightenment. Classic collections include The Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate, and famous examples include the sound of one hand clapping and the question of whether a dog has Buddha-nature.

  • Zen Buddhism — Zen Buddhism is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition emphasizing meditation, koans, and direct realization or sudden insight rather than discursive doctrine. Its Chinese lineage is traditionally traced to Bodhidharma, and it is associated with the Flower Sermon and figures such as Hui-neng. Major schools include Rinzai and Soto. It developed in East Asia, especially China and Japan, and Dōgen brought it from China to Japan around 1227, helping establish its later Soto tradition. Koan collections such as The Gateless Gate and the Blue Cliff Record are closely associated with it.

    • bowls — Bowls are common monastic utensils in Zen practice and also recur in literary clues such as The Golden Bowl. In Dōgen’s Tenzo Kyōkun, monks are told to care for such objects as carefully as their own eyes.

    • D. T. Suzuki — Japanese Buddhist scholar who helped popularize Zen Buddhism in the West. He wrote widely on Zen and satori, linked Buddhist thought with modern discussions of religion and culture, and his books include Studies in Zen Buddhism and Zen and Japanese Culture.

    • dharma transmission — Dharma transmission is the Zen Buddhist practice of passing authority and insight from teacher to disciple. It is associated with the Flower Sermon, Mahākāshyapa, and the line of patriarchs recorded in the Jǐngdé Record of the Transmission of the Lamp.

    • Flower Sermon — The Flower Sermon is the Zen Buddhist origin story in which the Buddha silently holds up a flower before Mahakashyapa, who alone understands the teaching. It is a foundational legend for Zen’s emphasis on direct insight rather than words. Quiz clues often describe it as the moment when Buddha transmitted awakening outside scripture. The story is also associated with the term Nengemishō.

    • koan — A koan is a paradoxical Zen Buddhist question or statement used to provoke insight and test enlightenment. Famous collections include The Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate, and a classic example is “What is the sound of one hand clapping?”

    • Koan collections
      • Blue Cliff Record — A Song-dynasty Zen Buddhist collection of one hundred koans compiled by Yuanwu Keqin. It is especially revered in the Rinzai tradition. Its cases include “Tsui Yen’s Eyebrows,” “Chao Chou’s Four Gates,” “Nansen Kills a Cat,” “Kyozan’s Not Wandering,” and “Nansen and the Flower.”
    • koans — Short paradoxical sayings, questions, statements, or dialogues used in Zen Buddhism, especially in Rinzai practice, to provoke meditation, doubt, insight, and discipline. Famous collections include the Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate. Classic examples include “What is the sound of one hand clapping?”, Joshu’s “mu,” the dog question, and “If you meet the Buddha, kill him.”
      • one hand clapping — One hand clapping is the famous Zen koan associated with Hakuin Ekaku. It asks for the sound made by a single hand, a paradox meant to push the listener beyond ordinary reasoning.

    • Philip Kapleau — Philip Kapleau was a former court reporter who studied with D. T. Suzuki before moving to a Zen monastery in Japan. His Three Pillars of Zen became an important introduction to Zen practice for many Western readers.

    • Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch — The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch is a foundational Zen text associated with Huineng and the Southern School. It includes the story of the poetry contest in which Huineng’s verse about there being nowhere for dust to gather triumphs over Shenxiu’s mirror image.

    • Retreats
      • Sesshin — Sesshin is a Zen Buddhist retreat devoted to several days of intensive group meditation, eating, and work. It often includes long periods of zazen, short rest breaks, and lectures from the roshi.

    • Rinzai — Rinzai is a major Japanese Zen school that emphasizes koans and sudden enlightenment. It traces back to the Chinese master Linji and was brought to Japan by Eisai.

    • Rinzai school — The Rinzai school is a Japanese Zen Buddhist tradition associated with Eisai, koan study, and sudden enlightenment. Its clues usually contrast it with Sōtō and Ōbaku and may reference famous koan collections like The Gateless Gate.

    • Shaolin Monastery — A Chan Buddhist monastery on Mount Song in Henan, famous for its martial arts traditions. It is associated with Bodhidharma, the Yijin Jing, the legendary training of monks who practiced Shaolin kung fu, and later military service in support of Chinese dynasties.

    • Soto and Rinzai — Soto and Rinzai are the two major sects of Zen Buddhism. They are the standard pair used to divide Zen into its principal Japanese traditions.

    • sudden enlightenment — Sudden enlightenment is the Chan and Seon Buddhist claim that awakening can happen instantaneously rather than only through gradual cultivation. The Platform Sutra and later Korean and Chinese Buddhist writers use it to contrast immediate insight with step-by-step practice.

    • The Blue Cliff Record — The Blue Cliff Record is a classic Zen Buddhist koan collection associated with the Soto and Rinzai traditions. Compiled from Song-dynasty material, it is famous for short dialogue cases and commentarial layers on enlightenment themes.

    • Thich Nhat Hanh — Thich Nhat Hanh was a Vietnamese Zen Buddhist monk, peace activist, and major advocate of engaged Buddhism. He founded Plum Village and wrote works such as Living Buddha, Living Christ and Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire.

    • zazen — Zazen is the seated meditation central to Zen Buddhism, commonly practiced in the full-lotus or half-lotus posture with attention to breathing. In Dōgen’s writings, it is associated with “thinking of not thinking” and the realization of enlightenment.

• Siddhartha Gautama — founder of Buddhism; born c. 5th–4th century BCE in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) into the Shakya clan; called the Buddha (“the Awakened One”) after his enlightenment. He renounced palace life, meditated under the Bodhi tree, and attained enlightenment, then taught the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. He is associated with the first sermon at Sarnath (Deer Park), and his life story includes his wife Yasodhara and son Rahula.

• The Four Sights — the young Siddhartha encountered old age, sickness, death, and a wandering ascetic, prompting his spiritual quest (the Great Renunciation).

• Enlightenment (Bodhi) — Siddhartha attained awakening under the Bodhi Tree at Bodh Gaya; he then taught until his death (parinirvana) at Kushinagar.

• Four Noble Truths — (1) Dukkha: life involves suffering/unsatisfactoriness; (2) Samudaya: suffering arises from craving and attachment; (3) Nirodha: the cessation of craving is possible; (4) Magga: the Eightfold Path leads to that cessation. They are Buddhism’s core teaching on suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to that cessation. They appear in the Buddha’s first sermon.
  • truths — In Buddhist thought, the Four Noble Truths are the basic statements about suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path leading to liberation. The term also appears in philosophical debates over conventional and ultimate reality, especially in Madhyamaka and Tiantai thought.

• Eightfold Path — Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration; grouped into wisdom, ethical conduct, and mental cultivation. It is the Buddhist path presented in the Buddha’s first sermon as the Fourth Noble Truth’s way to the cessation of suffering and nirvana. It is often symbolized by the eight-spoked dharmachakra.

• Nirvana — the extinguishing of craving and the release from the cycle of rebirth; the ultimate goal in Theravada Buddhism. Also associated with enlightenment and the ending of samsara, the cycle of suffering and rebirth; in Pali it is called nibbana or nibbāna.

• Three Jewels (Triratna) — the Buddha, the Dharma (teaching), and the Sangha (community); taking refuge in the Three Jewels is a foundational Buddhist commitment.

• Three Marks of Existence — impermanence (anicca), suffering/unsatisfactoriness (dukkha), and no-self (anatta).

• Karma and Rebirth — actions condition future rebirths; the goal is to break the cycle.

• Bodhisattva — in Mahayana Buddhism, an enlightened being who delays full nirvana to assist others toward liberation. Tibetan Buddhism also uses the term for enlightened figures who remain in the world to spread enlightenment. Figures such as Avalokiteshvara and Maitreya are commonly identified as bodhisattvas, and the Dalai Lama is sometimes described in this context.
  • Jizō — Jizō, or Kṣitigarbha, is an East Asian bodhisattva associated with protecting children, especially dead or unborn children, and guiding souls across the Sanzu River. He is often shown with a staff and a wish-fulfilling jewel and vowed not to become a Buddha until the hell realms are emptied.
• Guanyin — the Chinese name for Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of compassion; one of the most widely venerated figures in East Asian Buddhism; depicted variously as male (as in early Indian Buddhism) or female (as commonly in China, Japan as Kannon, Korea as Gwaneum); associated with mercy and the hearing of prayers. In Chinese and Korean traditions, this figure is often shown in an androgynous form carrying a vase and willow branch, and may be associated with Mount Potalaka and the water-moon manifestation; some depictions emphasize a thousand arms and eyes.
  • 1000 — In Buddhism, Kannon is often depicted with a thousand arms, symbolizing the ability to reach all who need help. The number 1000 also appears in the phrase “death by a thousand cuts,” a clue pointing to the Chinese punishment lingchi.
• Nichiren Buddhism — a Japanese Buddhist school founded by the monk Nichiren (1222–1282); emphasizes chanting the title of the Lotus Sutra (Nam-myoho-renge-kyo) as the path to enlightenment; basis for modern movements including Soka Gakkai. Its founder argued that this recitation alone could bring enlightenment and attacked rival schools such as Tendai and Shingon.

  • Nam Myoho Renge Kyo — Nam Myoho Renge Kyo is the Nichiren Buddhist chant of devotion to the Lotus Sutra. It is identified with chanting the sutra’s name and is tied to the doctrine of the Lotus Sutra as the culmination of Shakyamuni Buddha’s teachings. The chant is associated with the Gohonzon mandala and with the parable of the burning house, a classic image for expedient means.

  • Nichiren — Nichiren was a 13th-century Japanese Buddhist monk who founded Nichiren Buddhism and emphasized chanting Namu Myoho Renge Kyo. Clues also point to the Gohonzon, the Lotus Sutra, exile to the Izu Peninsula, and the later Soka Gakkai movement.

  • Soka Gakkai — Soka Gakkai is a Japanese lay Buddhist movement that developed from Nichiren Buddhism. It emphasizes chanting the Lotus Sutra, human revolution, and the gohonzon, and is closely associated with Daisaku Ikeda and Komeito. It is also known for vigorous proselytization.

  • Soka Gakkai International — A Japanese Buddhist lay movement/organization based on Nichiren’s teachings and the Lotus Sutra. It promotes namu myōhō renge kyō, is associated with the Komeito political party, and is known for mass proselytizing campaigns such as the Great Shakubuku March.

• Dalai Lama lineage — the Dalai Lamas are held to be successive reincarnations of Avalokiteshvara (bodhisattva of compassion); the lineage was established in the 15th century; the current 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935), has lived in exile in Dharamsala, India since 1959.

Major branches

• Theravada — “School of the Elders”; predominant in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Cambodia, and Laos; emphasizes individual liberation through monasticism and the Pali Canon; the ideal is the arahant (one who has attained nirvana). Its scriptural canon is the Tipitaka, divided into the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma baskets, and important Theravada texts and practices include the Visuddhimagga, vipassana meditation, and the annual Vassa retreat. Older sources may call it Hinayana, and Rama IV’s Thammayut Nikaya is a Thai reform movement within the tradition.

• Mahayana — “Great Vehicle”; predominant in East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam); emphasizes the bodhisattva ideal, universal liberation, and includes a broader range of sutras (e.g., Heart Sutra, Lotus Sutra). It is the largest branch of Buddhism and includes traditions such as Zen, Pure Land, Tendai, and Shingon; it also emphasizes emptiness.

• Vajrayana — “Diamond Vehicle” or Tantric Buddhism; predominant in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia; incorporates esoteric practices, mantras, mandalas, and a guru-disciple transmission. It makes extensive use of tantras and related ritual practices.

• Zen (Chan) — a Mahayana school emphasizing meditation (zazen) and direct insight; uses koans (paradoxical questions) to destabilize conceptual thinking.

• Pure Land Buddhism — Mahayana school focused on devotion to Amitabha Buddha and rebirth in the “Pure Land” through the recitation of his name (nembutsu). It is especially developed in Chinese Buddhism, where it is associated with Shan-tao. Its central goal is rebirth in the Western Pure Land, or Sukhavati, and Japanese branches include Jodo Shu and Jodo Shinshu, associated with Honen and Shinran.

  • Amitabha Buddha — Amitabha is the Mahayana Buddha of Infinite Light and Infinite Life, and the central figure of Pure Land Buddhism. He is associated with the Western Pure Land of Sukhavati, and devotees recite his name in nianfo or nembutsu/niànfó to seek rebirth there. Tradition links him with the bodhisattva Dharmakara, Guanyin, and his forty-eight vows.

  • Nembutsu — The Pure Land Buddhist practice of reciting the name of Amitabha Buddha, usually as a devotional chant. It is associated with rebirth in the Western Pure Land, Sukhavati, and in East Asia appears as nembutsu or nianfo; it is especially associated with Honen and Shinran and is mentioned in early meditation texts such as the Pratyutpanna Samadhi Sutra.
    • Reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha — In Pure Land Buddhism, reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha is a devotional act often rendered as saying Namu Amida Butsu. The phrase can also be described as chanting or praying to Amitābha, Amitāyus, or Dharmakāra.

  • Pure Land — A Pure Land is a blissful Buddhist realm associated with rebirth and the aspiration to attain enlightenment there. Sukhavati is the best-known example, and traditions centered on Amitabha and nembutsu often describe access to it through faith or recitation.

  • Pure lands — Pure lands are paradise-like realms in Mahayana Buddhism where rebirth is easier and Buddhahood is closer at hand. Quizbowl clues often center on Amitābha’s Sukhavati, the Japanese jōdo tradition, and the practice of nianfo as a means of reaching one of these realms.

  • Shin Buddhism — Shin Buddhism is the Japanese Pure Land tradition founded by Shinran, with major sects such as Jodo Shinshu. Its practice centers on chanting Amitābha’s name and treating religious practice as an expression of gratitude rather than self-purification.

    • Hōnen — Hōnen was the founder of Jōdo-shū, a Japanese Pure Land Buddhist sect centered on nembutsu devotion to Amitabha Buddha. He emphasized salvation in the Pure Land over traditional monastic practice and influenced disciples such as Shinran.

    • Ikko-Ikki — The Ikko-Ikki were militant followers of the True Pure Land sect who resisted Oda Nobunaga in Japan. They were centered at places like Ishiyama Hongan-ji and Nagashima and were associated with Rennyo and nembutsu fervor.

• Tibetan Buddhism — a form of Vajrayana; the Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Gelug school; the current (14th) Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso. Associated with the Potala Palace and the Yellow Hat or Gelug school. It is often associated with tulkus, the Book of the Dead, bardos, and figures such as Chenrezig and the Nechung oracle.

  • bardo — A bardo is an intermediate state between death and rebirth in Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Book of the Dead, or Bardo Thodol, describes six such states and guides the soul through them. Clues may mention Karma Lingpa, Dogen, or the idea of luminous awareness during the transition. The term is sometimes given in Sanskrit or Tibetan transliteration as antarābhava or related forms.

  • Dalai Lama — The Dalai Lama is the title of Tibetan Buddhism’s highest-ranking spiritual leader and the reincarnated head of the Gelug school, traditionally also the political head of Tibet. The title was first bestowed on Sonam Gyatso and is associated with the honorific “Ocean of Wisdom.” The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was born Lhamo Thondup, fled Tibet in 1959, has lived in exile in Dharamsala, led the Tibetan government in exile, and won the 1989 Nobel Peace Prize.
    • Dalai Lamas — The Dalai Lamas are the spiritual leaders of Tibetan Buddhism, regarded as incarnations of Avalokitesvara. The current one is Tenzin Gyatso, and the line of succession is traditionally discovered by monks testing children’s recognition of a predecessor’s objects.
      • 14th Dalai Lama — The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, was born Lhamo Thondup and is the exiled spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism and head of the Gelug school. Chosen as a tulku after a search, he fled Lhasa and Tibet in 1959 after the Chinese takeover and has lived in exile in India for decades. He is known for writings on compassion and happiness, for public dialogue between religions and science, and for his association with the Mind and Life Institute. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989.

  • Gelug — A major school of Tibetan Buddhism founded by Je Tsongkhapa and associated with the Dalai Lama tradition. It is the Yellow Hat lineage, contrasted with schools such as the Kagyu or Red Hat lineages, and is linked to the Dorje Shugden controversy.

  • Jokhang Temple — A renowned Tibetan Buddhist temple complex in Lhasa, built in the seventh century and repeatedly enlarged. It houses the highly venerated Jowo Shakyamuni Buddha statue and is traditionally regarded as the most holy temple of Tibetan Buddhism.

  • Karmapa
    • the Karmapa Lama — The Karmapa Lama is a reincarnate Tibetan Buddhist lama, and Ugyen Dorje is identified in the source as its 17th incarnation. This title belongs to the head of the Karma Kagyu school.

  • lama — A lama is a teacher or spiritual leader in Tibetan Buddhism, and the Dalai Lama is the best-known holder of that title. The term is also tied to Tibetan death rites, where a lama may guide the soul through the bardos, and to the Panchen Lama and other reincarnate leaders.

  • lamas — A lama is a Tibetan Buddhist religious teacher, and the title can also refer to reincarnated leaders such as the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama. These figures belong especially to the Gelug tradition and are often treated as tulkus or precious ones.
    • the Panchen Lama — The Panchen Lama is the second-highest figure in Tibetan Buddhism after the Dalai Lama. The title has been politically contested in modern Tibet, and the recognized Panchen Lama has long been associated with the case of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima.

  • Panchen Lama — The Panchen Lama is the second-highest figure in Tibetan Buddhism, traditionally responsible for confirming the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama. The title is associated with Shigatse and Tashilhunpo Monastery, where the Panchen Lama resides, and its current succession is disputed between a Chinese-backed claimant and the exile-recognized claimant Gedhun Choekyi Nyima.

  • Prayer wheel — A prayer wheel is a Tibetan Buddhist cylinder or handheld device that rotates to symbolize mantra recitation. Some are powered by wind, water, or motors, and they are often associated with the mantra “Om mani padme hum.”

  • Protector deities
    • Dorje Shugden — Dorje Shugden is a Tibetan Buddhist protector deity associated with the Gelug tradition and with the New Kadampa Tradition. His worship was controversially banned by the Dalai Lama in 1996 because of its sectarian character, and some accounts identify him with the reincarnation of Tulku Dragpa Gyaltsen.

  • Reformed Lamaism — Reformed Lamaism is an older quizbowl label for Tibetan Buddhism, described as a modified form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet. The clue emphasizes its elaborate ritual, ceremonial dress, and hierarchical structure.

  • Schools
    • Gelug School — The Gelug School is the newest major school of Tibetan Buddhism and is often called the Yellow Hat School. Founded by Je Tsongkhapa, it is the tradition to which the Dalai Lama line belongs.

  • the Bardo — The Bardo is the transitional state between death and rebirth in Tibetan Buddhism. In contemporary fiction it appears as a ghostly in-between place, including the cemetery-bound setting of George Saunders’s Lincoln in the Bardo.

  • the Fifth Dalai Lama — The Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, unified Tibet with Mongol support and established the Ganden Phodrang government. He ordered the construction of the Potala Palace, where his body now rests in the Red Palace.
• Sōtō Zen

  • Dōgen — Dōgen was born in 1200 and became the 13th-century founder of the Japanese Sōtō Zen school after traveling to China and returning to Japan in 1231. He is associated with the first independent Zen temple in Japan, teaching meditation over book learning, and the practice of zazen, or seated meditation. He authored works such as the Shōbōgenzō (The True Dharma Eye) and is also associated with shikantaza, a style of silent meditation, and with the view that even inanimate things express Buddha-nature.

  • Dōgen Zenji — Dōgen Zenji was the founder of the Japanese Sōtō school of Zen Buddhism and author of the Shōbōgenzō. He emphasized shikantaza and taught that practice and enlightenment are not separate states.

• Zen koan collections
  • Mumonkan — A classic Zen Buddhist koan collection compiled by Wumen Huikai (Wu-Men). It contains 48 cases, including Joshu’s answer “Mu” to the question of whether a dog has Buddha-nature, the cat splitting, and Huike asking Bodhidharma to pacify his mind.
• Vietnamese Buddhism
  • Hoa Hao — Hoa Hao is a quasi-Buddhist Vietnamese religious tradition centered on the teachings of Huynh Phu So, whom followers regard as the Buddha Master. It emphasizes charity over pagodas and elaborate ritual, and it once maintained a significant armed presence.
• Buddhist movements
  • Dao Hoa Hao — Dao Hoa Hao is a Vietnamese Buddhist offshoot founded by Huynh Phu So in 1939. It emphasizes home practice, simplicity, and charity, rather than elaborate temple ritual.
• Buddhist schools
  • Tendai Buddhism — Tendai Buddhism is a Japanese Buddhist school founded by Saichō and closely related to the Chinese Tiantai tradition. It emphasizes the Lotus Sutra and became a major rival to Shingon in early medieval Japan.
• Karmapa
  • Ugyen Trinley Dorje — Ugyen Trinley Dorje is the 17th Karmapa, a major figure in Tibetan Buddhism. His arrival in Lhasa was treated as a significant defection in the continuing dispute over the succession of Tibetan Buddhist leaders.
• Tibetan Buddhist mythology
  • Shambhala — A mythical hidden utopian kingdom in Tibetan Buddhist and other esoteric traditions, associated with the Kalachakra Tantra and the future Buddha Maitreya. It is sometimes imagined as the capital of a subterranean paradise and is linked in legend to Agharta and the King of the World; traditions also describe its rulers and connect it with Kalki.

Further Figures, Narratives, and Practices

• Buddhist missionaries
  • Mahinda — Mahinda, also called Mahendra, was the monk son of Ashoka who helped carry Buddhism to Sri Lanka. He is associated with the spread of the Pali Canon and with legends set in the Anuradhapura kingdom, including his encounter with King Tissa’s party at Mihintale.
• Dependent origination
  • bhava — Bhava is the Buddhist term for becoming or existence, the link in dependent origination that leads toward birth, aging, and death. It describes the translation of mental states into outward forms and is usually treated as one step in the chain of suffering.
• Buddhist commentators
  • Buddhaghosa — Buddhaghosa was a fifth-century Theravada Buddhist commentator best known for the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification. He is often treated as the most influential orthodox interpreter of the Theravada tradition.
• Buddhist guardian deities
  • Four Heavenly Kings — The Four Heavenly Kings are Buddhist guardian deities who protect the cardinal directions and are led by Vaisravana. They appear in East Asian Buddhist tradition, including the Golden Light Sutra and temple iconography.

Sikhism

• Sikhism — Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded by Guru Nanak in Punjab and followed by Sikhs, who call it Gurmat, the Way of the Guru. It is guided by the teachings of the ten gurus and centers on the Guru Granth Sahib (the Adi Granth), compiled by the fifth guru, Arjun. Its adherents are especially concentrated in northern India, especially Punjab, and their community became militarized after persecution under Mughal rule. Sikh identity is marked by the Five Ks: kesh (uncut hair), kangha (a comb), kara (a steel bracelet), kirpan (a sword), and kachera (shorts or a special undergarment); many adherents wear turbans and are initiated through the Khalsa. Sikh temples are called gurdwaras and serve langar, a free communal meal. The most famous shrine is the Harmandir Sahib, or Golden Temple, in Amritsar. The religion traditionally prohibits tobacco and intoxicants and has tens of millions of adherents worldwide.
  • Articles of faith
    • Five Ks — The Sikh articles of faith required of the Khalsa and associated with the reforms of Guru Gobind Singh. They are the five emblems of Sikh identity: uncut hair (kesh), a comb (kangha), a steel bracelet (kara), cotton shorts or a similar garment (kachera), and the kirpan, a small sword or dagger.

      • comb — A kangha is the small wooden comb worn by Sikhs as one of the five articles of faith, usually kept under the turban. It symbolizes cleanliness and order, and Sikh practice traditionally expects it to be used regularly in the hair.

      • cutting one’s hair — In Sikhism, kesh requires adherents to avoid cutting their hair. The same practice was also forbidden for biblical Nazirites and is reflected in the long hair and beards of baptized Sikhs.

      • kesh — Kesh, or kes, is the Sikh practice of keeping one’s hair uncut as one of the Five Ks. It is often associated with the turban, which covers the naturally grown hair as a sign of reverence for God’s creation.

      • kirpan — The kirpan is the ceremonial dagger worn by Sikhs as one of the Five Ks. It symbolizes the duty to defend the oppressed and appears in initiation rituals and daily devotional practice.

    • the Five Ks — The Five Ks are the five articles of faith required of initiated Sikhs. They include the kirpan, kesh, kangha, kara, and kachera.
  • Daily prayers
    • japji sahib — Japji Sahib is the opening morning prayer of Sikhism and the first of the five banis in the nitnem. It begins with the Mul Mantar and is commonly recited at amrit vela. Sikh tradition also links the prayer to martyr stories, including Bhai Mati Das reciting it even as he was executed.
  • Dietary laws
    • Jhatka — Jhatka is the quick, single-blow method of animal slaughter accepted in Sikh practice and often associated with Hindu dietary customs as well. It contrasts with ritual slaughter methods such as halal and kashrut.

  • eternal — Eternal is an adjective used for God in Sikh thought, especially in names like Akal Purakh and Ik Onkar that emphasize timelessness. It also appears in familiar phrases such as eternal flame and the Eternal City.

  • Festivals
    • Vaisakhi — Vaisakhi is a Sikh harvest and New Year festival that marks the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. It is also important in the Hindu solar calendar, especially in Bengal.
  • Founders and Gurus
    • Guru Nanak — Founder and first guru of Sikhism, remembered for rejecting rigid religious division and proclaiming that there is no Hindu and no Muslim. He is also associated with the Mūl Mantar, the Janamsakhis, hymns and sayings preserved in Sikh scripture, and practices such as langar and Naam Japna. Traditions describe his rejection of the sacred thread ceremony in favor of a spiritual ethic of mercy and truth, his companionship with the rabab player Mardana, his mystical disappearance in the river, and his appointment of Lehna, later Angad, as successor.
  • Guru — In Sikhism and broader Indian usage, a guru is a spiritual teacher and religious authority. The Sikh tradition begins with Guru Nanak and recognizes ten human gurus, ending with Guru Gobind Singh, who founded the Khalsa, established the Five Ks, and passed authority to the Adi Granth, regarded as the eternal Guru or Guru Granth Sahib.

    • Arjun (Arjan) Dev — Arjun, also known as Arjan Dev, was the fifth Sikh Guru and the compiler of the Adi Granth. He is also associated with the founding of the Golden Temple at Amritsar, which housed the scripture.

    • Nanak — Nanak was the first Guru of Sikhism and is credited with founding the religion. His teachings emphasized divine remembrance and spiritual life lived in the world, and they were later collected in the Adi Granth.

    • Sikh Gurus — The ten Sikh Gurus were the spiritual leaders of Sikhism from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh. They shaped the Sikh tradition and are associated with teachings such as Naam Japna and Vand Chakko, the composition of sacred texts including the Adi Granth, the creation of the Khalsa, and the elevation of the Guru Granth Sahib as successor.

  • Guru Nanak Dev — The first Sikh guru, remembered for founding Sikhism and for saying that there is no Hindu and no Muslim. Clues often mention his early life, his journeys with Bhai Mardana, the langar tradition, the Janamsakhis, and the story of his feet pointing toward the Kaaba. His successor was Bhai Lehna, renamed Angad, and his hymns are preserved in the Adi Granth.

  • Guru Tegh Bahadur — Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth Sikh guru and the father of Guru Gobind Singh. He is remembered for resisting forced conversion and for martyrdom under Aurangzeb, earning the title Hind-di-Chaadar, or Shield of India.

  • Initiation ceremonies
    • Amrit Sanchar — Amrit Sanchar is the Sikh initiation ceremony into the Khalsa, also called Khande di Pahul or Amrit Sanskar. It uses sweetened water stirred with a sword, and Guru Gobind Singh’s first rite involved the Panj Pyare and a dramatic feigned beheading.

  • kara — In Sikh practice, the kara is a steel or iron bracelet worn as one of the Five Ks. It symbolizes God’s infinity and unbreakable unity with God, and serves as a constant reminder of commitment to restraint, devotion, and avoiding wrongdoing.

  • Kaur — Kaur is the Punjabi surname adopted by many Sikh women, alongside Singh for Sikh men. Guru Gobind Singh introduced this naming practice as part of the Khalsa’s rejection of caste distinction.

  • Khalsa names
    • Singh — Singh is the title and surname used by initiated Sikh men and mandated for all male Sikhs in the Khalsa tradition. It means “lion” in Sanskrit and appears throughout Sikh history and on the names of prominent Sikh athletes and activists.

  • Mūl Mantar — The Mūl Mantar is the opening verse of the Japjī Sahib and a foundational Sikh prayer formula whose name means “root.” It is treated as a sacred mantra, and some Sikh traditions debate the exact wording to be recited.

  • Nihang — The Nihang, also called Akali or the immortals, are a blue-clad Sikh warrior order known for their martial discipline. They are associated with Hola Mohalla, wear distinctive robes and dumallas, and are often described as using bhang in battle and meditation.

  • Ritual food
    • karah prasad — Karah prasad is the sweet sacramental food served in Sikh gurdwaras after the Ardas prayer. It is typically made from wheat flour, butter, and sugar and is distributed to worshippers as part of the ceremony.

  • Sahajdhari — Sahajdhari Sikhs are adherents of Sikh principles who have not yet become baptized Khalsa. The name means “slow-adopting” and refers to those who follow Sikh discipline without formal initiation.

  • Sikh gurus — The Sikh gurus are the spiritual leaders of Sikhism, beginning with Nanak and ending with Gobind Singh as the last human holder of the office. Gobind Singh established the Khalsa and designated the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal guru. The tradition is associated with the Japji, the Five K’s, the Adi Granth, Baba Bakale, and reforms such as langar, dasvandh, and manji, along with the teaching that “there is no Hindu, there is no Muslim.”

  • Sikh gurus

    • Angad — Angad was the successor to Guru Nanak and the second guru of Sikhism. He is usually mentioned in clues about Nanak’s death, the transfer of spiritual authority, and the formation of the Sikh guru lineage.

    • Guru Arjun Dev — Guru Arjun Dev was the fifth Sikh guru and the compiler of the Adi Granth. He completed the Golden Temple at Amritsar, founded Tarn Taran and Kartarpur, and was executed under Jahangir after aiding Prince Khusrau’s rebellion.

    • Guru Gobind Singh — The tenth and final human Sikh guru, son of Tegh Bahadur. He founded the Khalsa in 1699, associated with the Five Ks and the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones), and designated the Guru Granth Sahib as his successor and the eternal guru. He is also linked to the Zafarnamah and to resistance against Aurangzeb and Mughal rule; he was martyred in 1708.

    • Ram Das — Guru Ram Das was the fourth Sikh Guru and a disciple of Guru Amar Das. He is credited with founding Amritsar and is associated with the Lawan hymn used in Sikh marriage ceremonies. The Golden Temple was established on land associated with him and granted by Akbar.

  • Sikh scripture
    • the Adi Granth — The Adi Granth is the Sikh scripture compiled by Guru Arjun and treated as the religion’s canonical sacred text. It is also called the Granth or Guru Granth in related clues.

  • Sikhs — Sikhs are followers of a Punjabi religion associated with turbans and the Golden Temple in Amritsar. Clues include the Khalistan movement, the assassination of Indira Gandhi, and retaliatory attacks such as the bombing of Air India Flight 182.

  • symbols
    • khanda — The khanda is a Sikh emblem made from a double-edged sword flanked by a chakkar and two daggers. It is also a sacred sword in Sikh and Rajput contexts, where it appears in Nihang symbols and in stories of martial last stands.
  • takht — A takht is one of the five seats of Sikh religious and temporal authority. The best known is the Akal Takht in Amritsar, where the Guru Granth Sahib is displayed and where hukamnamas may be issued.

• Founder — Guru Nanak (1469–1539), born in the Punjab region (present-day Pakistan); received a divine calling and began teaching a monotheistic, egalitarian faith.

• Ten Gurus — Sikhism recognizes ten human Gurus from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708); the line of human Gurus ended with Gobind Singh, who declared the scripture as the eternal Guru. Key Gurus: Guru Angad Dev (2nd, systematized the Gurmukhi script), Guru Amar Das (3rd, institutionalized langar), Guru Ram Das (4th, founded Amritsar), Guru Arjan Dev (5th, compiled the Adi Granth and was martyred in 1606), Guru Har Gobind (6th, introduced the concept of miri-piri, temporal and spiritual authority), Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th, martyred 1675 by Aurangzeb for defending Hindu religious freedom), Guru Gobind Singh (10th).

• Guru Granth Sahib — the eternal, living scripture of Sikhism; compiled by the fifth Guru, Arjan Dev, and finalized by Gobind Singh; revered as the living Guru and treated with great respect. It is the central scripture of Sikhism, written in Gurmukhi and recited in daily Sikh ritual. Its hymns include texts such as the Japji, and it is preserved and honored in gurdwaras with great reverence.

  • Adi Granth Sahib — The Adi Granth Sahib is the main scripture of Sikhism and is treated as the living guru. It contains the Japji and the Mul Mantra and was revised by Gobind Singh, who passed the guruship to the book.

  • making the Adi Granth a guru — This event is the Sikh tradition that Guru Gobind Singh made the Adi Granth into the next guru, establishing the Guru Granth Sahib as a living spiritual authority. The story is linked to his final days and to the martyrdom context surrounding his conflict with the agents of Wazir Khan.

• Waheguru — “Wondrous Lord”; the Sikh name for God; Sikhism is strictly monotheistic. It appears in Sikh devotional language and is associated with the Naam Japo practice and the Ik Onkar symbol.

• Three Pillars — Naam Japna (meditating on God’s name), Kirat Karni (honest labor), Vand Chakna (sharing with others).

• Langar — the community kitchen attached to every Gurdwara, serving free meals to all regardless of background; embodies the principle of equality. It reflects Sikh ideals of sewa and equality, and it is often supported through community generosity.

• Gurdwara — the Sikh place of worship; “door to the Guru.” Gurdwaras are the places of worship in Sikhism, where the Guru Granth Sahib is enshrined and communal langar meals are served to all visitors. They feature practices such as shabad kirtan, paath, and the receiving of karah prasad, along with symbols like the Nishan Sahib outside. Major examples include the Harmandir Sahib and the five takhts.

• Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) — the holiest Sikh shrine, located in Amritsar, India; built under Guru Arjan Dev; the sacred pool (Amrit Sarovar) surrounds it.

• Khalsa — the community of initiated Sikhs established by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699; members observe the Five Ks (Panj Kakars). Members are identified by the Five Ks and by names such as Singh and Kaur after the Amrit Sanchar initiation ceremony.

• Five Ks (Panj Kakars) — Kesh (uncut hair), Kangha (wooden comb), Kara (steel bracelet), Kachera (cotton undergarment), Kirpan (steel sword).

• Amrit — the nectar used in Sikh initiation (Amrit Sanchar). It is also called the nectar of immortality and is associated with the Amrit Sanskar initiation rite into the Khalsa; the word appears in Amritsar, the city containing the Golden Temple, whose name means “pool of nectar.”

• Ik Onkar — “There is One God”; the opening phrase of the Mool Mantar, the foundational statement of Sikh belief. It is usually written with the Gurmukhi symbol ੴ and is often transliterated as Ek Onkar or Ik Oankaar; the phrase appears at the start of the Guru Granth Sahib.

• Sikh names
  • Singh and Kaur — Sikhs traditionally use Singh as the surname for men and Kaur as the surname for women. These names function as communal surnames rather than individual family names.
• Sikh Gurus
  • Tegh Bahadur — Tegh Bahadur was the ninth Sikh Guru, remembered for his martyrdom after refusing to convert to Islam. His execution under Aurangzeb is commemorated in Sikh observances tied to Gurpurb and to the succession of Guru Gobind Singh.

• Bhagats — Bhagats were devotional poet-saints whose hymns were incorporated into the Guru Granth Sahib. They include figures such as Kabir and Nanak, and the term means devotee.

• Sikh scriptures
  • Dasam Granth — The Dasam Granth is a Sikh compilation traditionally associated with Guru Gobind Singh. It includes devotional verse, retellings of Krishna legends, and other attributed writings.
• Sikh practices
  • langars — Langars are the communal Sikh kitchens attached to gurdwaras, where free vegetarian meals are served to all visitors. The same term is also used for Sufi communal kitchens that distribute food as an act of hospitality and devotion.
• Sikh gurdwaras
  • Sri Harmandir Sahib — The holiest gurdwara in Sikhism, located in Amritsar, India. It is famed for its gold-clad exterior, four entrances, and setting in the sacred pool of nectar, the Amrit Sarovar, and is closely associated with the Adi Granth kept there and the nearby Akal Takht. The complex was linked to Guru Arjan’s supervision and later restoration under Ranjit Singh. It was damaged in Operation Blue Star in 1984, when government troops assaulted the site, and later became associated with the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards.
• Head coverings
  • turbans — Wrapped head coverings worn in several cultures, especially in Sikhism, where they are associated with uncut hair, Khalsa identity, and ceremonial practice; male initiates may wear the dastar. The term also appears in historical labels such as the Red Turban and Yellow Turban rebellions, and related traditions include the Jewish high priests’ mitznefet, Shia sayyids, and East African Akurinu Christians.

Hindu Scriptures, Epics, and Philosophical Concepts

• Vedas — the oldest Hindu scriptures, comprising four collections: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda; composed in Vedic Sanskrit and regarded as shruti (“that which is heard,” divinely revealed). They are organized into the Rig, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda Samhitas, and later tradition also associates them with Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. The Rigveda is especially noted for hymns to soma and other deities, and the Vedas are foundational to Hindu ritual practice and recitation traditions.

  • Atharva Veda — The fourth Veda, associated with spells, charms, healing, and other practical rites. It is especially linked with protection from illness and worldly concerns, and tradition connects it with the sages Angirasa and Atharvan. It was canonized later than the other Vedas and includes material such as the Mandukya Upanishad and later ritual texts.

  • Atharvaveda — The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda and is associated with charms, healing rites, and magical formulas. It differs from the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas by emphasizing practical ritual and daily religious formulas, and it contains texts such as the Mandukya and Mundaka Upanishads.

  • Rig Veda — The Rig Veda is the oldest of the four Vedas and a foundational collection of Sanskrit hymns to deities such as Agni and Indra. It is divided into ten mandalas and is associated with the Nasadiya Sukta, the Purusha Sukta, the Gayatri Mantra, and the creation of the four castes.

  • Samaveda — The Samaveda is the Veda of chants and melodies, made largely from Rigvedic verses set to music. It is associated with the Chandogya and Kena Upanishads and with the oral tradition of Vedic song.

  • the Rigveda — The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas and is organized into ten mandalas, with many hymns devoted to Indra. Its famous material includes the “Gambler’s Lament,” which uses the vivid image of dice made from vibhitaka nuts.

• Shruti vs. Smriti — shruti texts are revealed (Vedas, Upanishads); smriti texts are “remembered” and include epics, Puranas, and law codes such as the Manusmriti.

• Upanishads — philosophical texts appended to the Vedas (c. 800–200 BCE); explore the nature of Brahman, Atman, and the self; foundational to Vedanta philosophy; principal texts: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Mundaka, Katha, and Mandukya; the teaching “Tat tvam asi” (“That thou art”) from the Chandogya encapsulates Advaita identity of Atman and Brahman. The title refers to students sitting near a teacher, and the Upanishads are traditionally counted as 108 works. They are also described as the concluding section of the Vedas and as a major source for Vedanta, with later influence on Western philosophy through Schopenhauer.

• Bhagavad Gita — a 700-verse scripture within the epic Mahabharata; a dialogue between the warrior Arjuna and Krishna (an avatar of Vishnu); teaches karma yoga, bhakti, and jnana as paths to liberation. It is the section of the Mahabharata where Krishna counsels Arjuna on duty and the soul during the Kurukshetra war, and it is often described as a compact statement of Hindu philosophy. It teaches that the atman cannot be destroyed by fire, wind, or water, links disciplined action to liberation, and discusses action without attachment, the gunas, and eighteen chapters organized around different forms of yoga. It is also associated with Krishna’s revelation of his universal form and the line “I have become death,” and it was famously commented on by Gandhi.
  • Arjuna and Krishna — Arjuna and Krishna are the two figures whose dialogue forms the Bhagavad Gita. Arjuna is the Pandava hero with the bow Gandeeva, while Krishna serves as his charioteer and an incarnation of Vishnu.

• Mahabharata and Ramayana — the two great Sanskrit epics; the Mahabharata includes the story of the Kurukshetra War; the Ramayana follows Prince Rama’s rescue of Sita from the demon king Ravana.

• Puranas — a genre of texts containing cosmology, mythology, and genealogies of gods and heroes; eighteen major Puranas.

• Brahman — the ultimate, impersonal reality or universal soul underlying all existence. In Advaita Vedanta, it is the only true reality. It is contrasted with atman, the individual self, and its relation to the soul is debated across Vedanta schools.

• Atman — the individual soul or self; in Advaita Vedanta, Atman is ultimately identical to Brahman. It is a central concept in Hindu thought; Buddhism rejects it as a permanent self.

• Dharma — cosmic order, moral duty, and righteous conduct; one’s dharma varies by stage of life and social role.
  • svadharma — Svadharma is the idea of a person’s own duty or ethical role, shaped by station, age, customs, and conscience. In Hindu thought, it is a personal form of dharma that contrasts with universal or general duty.

• Karma — the law of cause and effect; actions generate consequences that shape future lives.

• Samsara — the cycle of death and rebirth (reincarnation); souls transmigrate based on karma.

• Moksha — liberation from samsara; the ultimate spiritual goal; attained by different paths depending on the school.

• Moksha — the liberation of the soul (jiva) from karma and samsara; liberated souls (siddhas) reside at the top of the universe.

• Six Darshanas — the six classical schools of Hindu philosophy: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta; each constitutes an orthodox (astika) system that accepts the authority of the Vedas.

• Samkhya — one of the oldest darshanas; a dualist school distinguishing purusha (consciousness) from prakriti (matter/nature); provides the metaphysical foundation for classical Yoga.

• Philosophical schools
  • Vedanta — The Hindu philosophical school also called Uttara Mimamsa; it interprets the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita, treating the Upanishads as the culmination of the Vedic texts. Major strands include Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita. It is closely associated with Shankara, and later interpreters such as Ramanuja and Madhva.

    • Advaita — Advaita is the nondual Vedanta school associated with Śaṅkara and the claim that atman is brahman. Vedanta as a whole is the orthodox Hindu tradition that interprets the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and Bhagavad Gita.

    • Purusha — Purusha is the Vedic cosmic man and also a Sankhya concept for the eternal self or consciousness distinct from the physical world. The Rig Veda’s Purusha Sukta describes this primordial being whose body becomes the universe and the caste system.

    • Swami Vivekananda — Swami Vivekananda was a late nineteenth-century Hindu monk and disciple of Ramakrishna who helped popularize Vedanta in the West. He is famous for his 1893 Parliament of the World’s Religions speech that began “Sisters and Brothers of America.”

• Renunciation
  • nivritti — Nivritti is the Hindu term for renunciation of worldly life in pursuit of liberation. It contrasts with a life of engagement in the world and is used for those who turn away from ordinary social obligations.
• Sacred Texts
  • Agamas — Agamas are post-Vedic Hindu texts that govern temple ritual, image construction, and consecration. They also share their name with the Jain scriptural collections associated with Mahavira’s teachings.
• Scriptures
  • Sruti — Sruti is the body of Hindu sacred revelation, especially the Vedas and Upanishads, understood as what is “heard” rather than composed by human authors. It is contrasted with smrti, the remembered and interpreted tradition that includes later sacred commentary and law. The tradition is transmitted orally through memorization and recitation.
• spiritual paths
  • jnana — Jnana is the path of knowledge in Hindu thought, especially the introspective realization of the self. In this context, it is linked to moksha through self-knowledge and to spiritual insight into atman.
• Yoga and tantra
  • chakras — Chakras are the energy centers of yogic and tantric traditions, commonly described as seven major wheels running along the body. They are often linked to kundalini, the crown chakra, and later Western occult or New Age interpretations.
• Vedic literature
  • Brahmanas — The Brahmanas are prose Vedic commentaries that explain ritual practice and sacrifice, especially in connection with the Samhitas and the Rigveda. Texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana also preserve early mythic material, including versions of the flood story of Manu.
• Hindu epic tradition
  • Ramayana
    • Kaikeyi — Kaikeyi is Dasharatha’s queen who helps trigger Rama’s exile so her son Bharata can succeed to the throne. She is a central figure in the Ramayana and is associated with the machinations of Manthara.
• Hindu cosmology

  • Kali Yuga — Kali Yuga is the last and darkest age in Hindu cosmology, an era of decline, strife, and moral disorder. It is said to last 432,000 years and ends with the avatar Kalki. Clues often describe it as the age of conflict and corruption that began after Krishna left the earth. It is one of the four yugas in the cycle of world ages.

  • yuga — A yuga is one of the Hindu world ages, with the present age identified as Kali Yuga. The tradition describes four such ages in a repeating cosmic cycle.

• Epic tradition
  • Vyasa — Vyasa, also called Vedavyasa or Krishna Dvaipayana, is the legendary sage credited with composing the Mahabharata and compiling much of the Hindu scriptural tradition. Clues also mention that Ganesha served as his scribe and that he is associated with the Bhagavad Gita and the Puranas.

Hindu Worship, Festivals, and Life Stages

• Diwali — the “Festival of Lights,” a major Hindu (also Jain and Sikh) festival celebrated over five days in autumn; marks the victory of light over darkness and knowledge over ignorance; associated with Lakshmi, and in the Rama tradition with the return of Rama to Ayodhya; observed with oil lamps (diyas), fireworks, sweets, and worship. Also called Deepavali or Divali. The holiday falls across the lunar month transition between Ashvin and Kartika, and observances can include rangoli, family gift-giving, lamps in homes, temples, and waterways, and regional forms such as Tihar and Swanti. In some parts of India it is also treated as a new-year festival; Sikh observances include Bandi Chhor Divas, and Jain commemorations mark Mahavira’s nirvana.

• Holi — the “Festival of Colors,” a major Hindu spring festival celebrated over two days on the full moon of the month of Phalguna; revelers throw brightly colored powder (gulal) and water at one another; the festival’s eve features a bonfire (Holika Dahan) commemorating the burning of the demoness Holika, who tried to kill the Vishnu-devotee Prahlada by holding him in the flames but was herself consumed; also associated with the playful love of Krishna and Radha; widely observed across South Asia and the diaspora. Holi is the Hindu spring festival of colors, celebrated over two days on the full moon of Phalguna. Its eve features Holika Dahan, a bonfire commemorating the burning of Holika after she tried to kill Prahlada by holding him in the flames, and the festival is associated with the playful love of Krishna and Radha. Revelers throw brightly colored powder (gulal) and water at one another, and regional celebrations may include bhang, lathis, and other local customs. It is widely observed across South Asia and the diaspora.

• Four Ashramas — the four stages of life: brahmacharya (student), grihastha (householder), vanaprastha (forest dweller/retiree), sannyasa (renunciant).

• Four Purusharthas — the four aims of human life: artha (wealth/prosperity), kama (pleasure/desire), dharma (righteousness), and moksha (liberation); together they form the Brahminical framework for a complete human life.

• Puja — Hindu (and Jain/Buddhist) ritual worship; the offering of flowers, incense, food, light, and water to a deity’s image (murti) or symbol; can be performed at a home shrine or temple by laypersons without a priest; a central act of devotion in popular Hinduism. It is especially associated with festivals such as Diwali and with worship of deities like Durga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati. Some Jain sects reject or omit it.

• Bhakti Movement — a devotional reform movement that swept medieval India (c. 7th–17th centuries), emphasizing personal love of God over ritual caste hierarchy; key saints include Mirabai, Tukaram, Kabir, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. It is often associated with saints such as Mirabai and Akka Mahadevi, and with debates over nirguna and saguna conceptions of Brahman.

• Festivals

  • Dussehra — Dussehra, also called Vijayadashami, is the Indian festival that marks Rama’s victory over Ravana. It comes at the end of Navratri and is often preceded by performances of the Ramlila.

  • Navaratri — Navaratri is the nine-night, ten-day Hindu festival devoted to successive forms of Shakti, Durga, and other forms of the divine feminine. Observances include ghatasthapana, Kanya Puja, and regional customs such as golu doll displays in the south and Durga Puja in Bengal; in some traditions it culminates with Dussehra.

  • siblings — In Hindu festival questions, siblings are the family relationship celebrated by Raksha Bandhan and by the final day of Diwali.

• festivals and rituals
  • colored powder — Colored powder is used in Hindu ritual and festival settings such as rangoli, tilak, Holi, and related regional practices. Forms of it include gulal, kumkum, sindoor, and vibhuti, which appear in devotional markings and celebratory color play.
• Hindu festivals

  • Dasara — Dasara, also called Vijayadashami or Dussehra, is a Hindu festival marking the victory of Rama over Ravana and of Durga over Mahishasura. It comes at the end of Navaratri and is celebrated with rituals, parades, and in some places the burning of effigies.

  • Durga Puja — Durga Puja is the major Bengali festival celebrating the goddess Durga’s victory over Mahishasura. It features pandals, dhunuchi dances, ritual plantain-tree worship, and the climactic immersion of the goddess’s image.

  • Janmashtami — Janmashtami is the Hindu festival celebrating the birth of Krishna, a form of Vishnu. It falls on the eighth day of the dark half of Bhadrapada and is especially associated with Mathura and Vrindavan, with Dahi Handi following the celebration.

  • Raksha Bandhan — Raksha Bandhan is a Hindu festival in which sisters tie protective threads, or rakhi, around their brothers’ wrists and exchange gifts. Celebrated on the full moon of Śrāvaṇa, it emphasizes the bond of protection between siblings.

• liturgy and mantras
  • shantih — Shantih is the Sanskrit word repeated three times at the end of T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land. In the Upanishads, it serves as a formal ending associated with peace.
• Marriage customs
  • sindoor — Sindoor is the vermilion powder worn by many married Hindu women in the part of the hair. In Hindu weddings, the groom traditionally applies it to the bride’s hair part as a sign of marriage.
• Murti worship
  • Hindu idols — Hindu idols, or murtis, are consecrated in prana pratishtha and receive offerings, anointments, and ritual bathing in temple worship. Examples can be serene or fearsome, and large festival images are carried in procession during events such as Ganesh Chaturthi and Ratha Yatra.
• pilgrimage festivals
  • Kumbh Mela — Kumbh Mela is a major Hindu pilgrimage festival in which millions bathe in sacred rivers at set intervals, especially at sites associated with drops of amrita from a mythic struggle between devas and asuras. Its observances include the Peshwai procession, kalpvasis who camp and pray for the whole period, and the great mass bathing day cycles that include ardh and purna Kumbh Melas.
• Ritual formulas
  • Svaha — Svaha is a Hindu ritual formula associated with offerings and sacrifice. In some myths, she is the consort of Agni and the mother of Karttikeya.
• ritual offerings
  • ghee — Ghee is clarified butter used in Hindu ritual, including fire offerings, lamp-lighting, and Aarti. It also appears in Ayurvedic practice and in stories of Krishna stealing butter from Yashoda. Clues may use related regional names such as ghrutam, tuppa, neyyi, or nei.
• Ritual practices
  • mudras — Mudras are ritual hand gestures used in Hinduism and Buddhism, with forms such as abhaya, dhyana, and jnana. They also appear in yoga and classical dance, where the hands and fingers are posed to convey meaning or spiritual power.
• ritual substances
  • milk — Milk is the sacred dairy substance in Hindu ritual, associated with abhisheka, panchamrita, the Ocean of Milk, and Kamadhenu, the divine cow. Other clues connect it to Christian passages about solid food, kosher laws about meat and milk, and mythic or miraculous uses in Zoroastrian, Hindu, and Jewish traditions.
• rituals
  • aarti — Aarti is a Hindu ritual in which priests wave a lamp or fire before a deity during puja. Worshippers then pass their hands over the flame and touch their heads as an act of reverence.
• Samskara
  • upanayana — Upanayana is the Hindu sacred thread ceremony marking entry into student life and the learning of the Gayatri Mantra. It is commonly associated with Brahmin boys and regional forms such as munj, janeu, and poonal.
    • sacred thread — The sacred thread is the thin cord worn over the left shoulder in the Brahmin upanayana ceremony. It is also called the yajnopavita and is given in a rite of passage in Hindu practice.
• Vedic ritual

  • yajñas — Yajñas are Vedic fire sacrifices performed before Agni and associated with rites such as the Ashvamedha and soma offerings. The term is related to Hindu ritual practice and is cognate with the Zoroastrian Yasna.

  • yajna — A yajna is a Hindu ritual sacrifice performed in the presence of sacred fire. The term also applies to related fire offerings in Vedic tradition, and a similarly named rite appears in Zoroastrianism with haoma preparation.

• Vedic rituals
  • Ashvamedha — Ashvamedha is the Vedic royal horse sacrifice, in which the horse wanders before being ritually killed. The rite links royal power and fertility, and the queen participates in a symbolic sexual union with the horse.
• Hindu mantras
  • Gayatri mantra — The Gayatri mantra is a famous Rig Vedic hymn dedicated to Savitr, beginning with the words om bhur bhuvah svah. It is traditionally learned during the upanayana ceremony and recited by twice-born Hindus in daily ritual practice.
• Hindu decorative arts
  • rangoli — Rangoli is a Hindu decorative floor art made from colored powders, flour, or rice, often prepared for Diwali and sometimes called kolam or muggu. Regional variants such as pookkalam and the Nachiarkoil style show up in related clues.
• fire rituals
  • bonfire — A bonfire is the structure commonly lit in Hindu festivals such as Holi, where an effigy of Holika is burned. The clue also points to sacred fire imagery in Aboriginal stories, where the stolen fire leaves lasting traces.
• Hindu dietary laws
  • eating beef — This is the practice of eating beef, a taboo in many Hindu communities and a target of Hindu nationalist vigilantes known as gau rakshas.
• Hindu rites of passage
  • upanayanam — Upanayanam is the Hindu initiation rite in which boys are invested with the sacred thread and marked as twice-born. Clues often connect it to the Gayatri mantra, the janeu, and rituals such as Raksha Bandhan and related regional practices.
• Religious ascetic practices
  • Brahmacharya — Brahmacharya is the Hindu and Jain ideal of celibacy or disciplined self-restraint, often associated with the student stage of life. In yoga, the term can also mean conserving sexual energy through meditation and discipline.
• Hindu ritual
  • lamps — Lamps are central to Hindu ritual in aarti and Diwali, where devotees wave lighted objects and place them outside as offerings. Clues often mention diya, deepam, vilakku, or lamp-bearing ceremonies such as Lakshadeepam. The word also appears in wedding and festival processions across South Asian traditions.
• Hindu ritual objects
  • conch shell — A conch shell, or shankha, is a sacred Hindu ritual object associated with Vishnu and the city of Puri. In literature, it also becomes the emblem of order and authority in Lord of the Flies, where whoever holds it may speak at the assembly. The shell is shattered near the end of the novel, symbolizing the collapse of civilization among the boys.
• Hindu rituals
  • threads — Threads are cords or strings that appear in ritual contexts such as the Hindu sacred thread and Raksha Bandhan. Quiz clues may mention the janeu, upanayanam, the Gayatri mantra, or the idea of wearing a thread over the shoulder as a sign of initiation.

• Hindu funeral rites — Hindu funeral rites, or antyeshti, are cremation rites for the dead. The body is prepared with ritual cloth, offerings, prayers, chanting, and fire, and the soul is released through the funeral samskara. They traditionally take place at a shmashana, often by water, and may involve cremation on a pyre. Related customs include rice-ball offerings, ancestor offerings, memorial observances such as the Terahvin, the Rasam Pagri in Punjab, and periods of ritual impurity for participants.

• Om — The sacred Sanskrit syllable central to Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and yogic practice, associated with Brahman and the sound of the universe. It opens many Hindu recitations and mantras, including the Rig Veda, appears in the Mandukya Upanishad, and is used in pranava meditation. It is commonly chanted at the beginning and end of Hindu prayers and appears in phrases such as Om Namah Shivaya and Om Mani Padme Hum; it is also linked to the Brahma Kumaris and Aum Shinrikyo.

Buddhist Scriptures and Philosophical Concepts

• Tipitaka / Tripitaka — the Pali Canon (Theravada scripture), meaning “Three Baskets”: Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (discourses), Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophical analysis).

• Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika) — one of the most influential Mahayana sutras; teaches the universality of Buddhahood and the “skillful means” (upaya) of the Buddha; basis of Tiantai/Tendai and Nichiren Buddhism.

• Heart Sutra (Prajnaparamita Hridaya) — a short, widely recited Mahayana sutra encapsulating the doctrine of emptiness; contains the line “form is emptiness, emptiness is form.”

• Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedika) — a Prajnaparamita sutra emphasizing non-attachment and the illusory nature of phenomena; important in Chan/Zen tradition.

• Nagarjuna — the 2nd-century CE Buddhist philosopher; founder of the Madhyamaka (“Middle Way”) school; his Mulamadhyamakakarika argues that all phenomena are empty (shunyata) of inherent existence; regarded as the “second Buddha” in Mahayana tradition. He is associated with emptiness, non-self, and the claim that nirvana and samsara are not ultimately distinct.

• Shunyata (Emptiness) — the Mahayana doctrine that all phenomena lack inherent, independent existence; central to Madhyamaka and Zen thought.

• Buddhist concepts

  • skandhas — The skandhas are the five aggregates in Buddhism: form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

  • illusion — In Buddhism, illusion or maya refers to the deceptive appearance of reality, the sense that things are not as they seem. The concept is associated with texts and practices that describe the world as empty, dreamlike, or to be cut through by wisdom.

• Buddhist enlightenment stages
  • Sotapanna — A sotapanna is a Buddhist who has ‘entered the stream’ and taken the first step toward sainthood. It is a term from Buddhism for the first stage on the path to awakening.
• Buddhist literature
  • Jataka tales — Jataka tales are Buddhist birth stories about the Buddha’s former lives, often presented as moral fables. They appear in the Pali Canon and in relief sculpture at sites like Sanchi and Ajanta.
• Buddhist terminology
  • mahā — Mahā is a Sanskrit prefix meaning “great,” familiar from Buddhist terms like Mahāyāna and Mahāsaṃgha. It marks major Buddhist schools and texts whose names emphasize grandeur or enlarged scope.
• Buddhist terms
  • Hinayana — Hinayana is a pejorative Sanskrit term meaning “lesser vehicle” that historically referred to conservative Buddhist traditions such as Theravada. It contrasts with Mahayana ideals by emphasizing the arhat path rather than the bodhisattva path.
• Canon
  • Vinaya Piṭaka — The Vinaya Piṭaka is the Buddhist basket of discipline. It contains monastic rules and procedures for the sangha and forms one part of the Tripiṭaka alongside the Sutta and Abhidhamma collections.
• Discourses
  • sermons of the Buddha — The sermons of the Buddha are the early Buddhist discourses associated with the teachings delivered by Siddhartha Gautama to monks. Key examples include the First Sermon at Sarnath, which sets in motion the Wheel of Dharma and presents the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Other famous discourses include the Fire Sermon and the Flower Sermon.
• Mahayana concepts
  • upaya — Upaya is the Buddhist idea of skillful or expedient means, especially in Mahayana thought. The Lotus Sutra illustrates it with the parable of the burning house.
• Noble Truths
  • Trishna — Trishna is the Sanskrit term for craving or thirst in Buddhist thought. It is commonly used for the second Noble Truth, which explains suffering as arising from craving and attachment.
• Pali Canon discourses
  • The Fire Sermon — The Fire Sermon is a Buddhist discourse attributed to the Buddha and identified in the Pali Canon as the Aditta or Adittapariyaya Sutta. It describes the senses and sensations as burning with desire and suffering, and it also gives its name to the third section of T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land.
• Scriptures
  • Tripitakas — The Tripitakas are the Buddhist “Three Baskets,” the canonical collection of scriptures in Theravada Buddhism. They are traditionally divided into three major sections: discipline, sermons, and higher teaching.
• sutras
  • Mahayana Buddhist sutras — Mahayana Buddhist sutras are Buddhist scripture and teaching texts, often introduced with the formula “Thus have I heard.” Commonly named examples include the Heart Sutra, the Diamond Sutra, and the Golden Light Sutra.

    • Flower Garland Sutra — The Flower Garland Sutra, also called the Avatamsaka Sutra, is a major Mahayana text associated with Huayan and Kegon thought. It emphasizes interpenetration and the vast Buddha cosmos, including the Gandavyuha pilgrimage of Sudhana and the Ten Stages Sutra.

    • Lotus Sutra — The Lotus Sutra is a foundational Mahayana Buddhist scripture that teaches universal Buddhahood through skillful means. It is especially important in the Tendai and Nichiren traditions and is linked to the chant Nam Myoho Renge Kyo.

• Tibetan Buddhist texts
  • Tibetan Book of the Dead — A Vajrayana Buddhist text traditionally attributed to Padmasambhava and read over the deceased. It describes the bardo, a 49-day intermediate state between death and rebirth, with instructions for navigating the soul’s passage through the bardos, including visions of clear light, peaceful deities, and frightening apparitions.
• Enlightenment
  • satori — Satori is the Zen Buddhist term for awakening or sudden enlightenment, often associated with kensho, zazen, and koan practice. It is the goal of zazen and koan study, and is often contrasted with the briefer insight of kensho and with more discursive sutra-learning. Zen texts present it as a sudden realization rather than something reached by reasoning alone.
• Buddhist canon
  • Tripitaka — The Tripitaka, or Pali Canon, is the core scripture collection of Theravada Buddhism; the name literally means the Three Baskets. It is traditionally divided into the Vinaya, Sutta, and Abhidhamma (or Abhidharma) Pitakas, and it is preserved largely in Pali, the language from which its name is derived. It includes texts such as the Udana, Digha Nikaya, Dhammapada, and Khuddaka Nikaya.
    • the Dhammapada — The Dhammapada is a Theravada Buddhist text in the Pali canon, presented as the Buddha’s teachings in verse form. Its short chapters are often quoted for their ethical reflections on thought, action, and the shaping of one’s life.
• Buddhist scriptures
  • sutras — Buddhist scriptures containing works such as the Lotus, Heart, and Diamond Sutras. They are scripture-like discourses attributed to the Buddha, often begin with the formula “Thus have I heard,” and many are central texts in Mahayana Buddhism; the parable of the burning house appears in this tradition.
• Buddhist texts
  • sutras — Sutras are concise Indian religious or philosophical texts, especially sacred scriptures in Buddhism and Hinduism, and sometimes Jain works. Buddhist sutras often begin with “Thus have I heard,” and include the Lotus Sutra, Diamond Sutra, Heart Sutra, and Platform Sutra; the Kama Sutra is another example. They are central to traditions such as Tendai and Nichiren.
• Buddhist philosophy
  • dharmas — In Buddhist scholasticism, dharmas are the momentary phenomena or experienced things analyzed by Abhidharma traditions. The term also appears in Buddhist usage for a buddha’s dharmakaya, or inconceivable body.
• Prajnaparamita sutras
  • Diamond Cutter Sutra — A major Mahayana Buddhist text in the Prajnaparamita tradition and one of the central scriptures of Zen Buddhism. It is presented as a dialogue between the Buddha and Subhuti and teaches emptiness, especially that all phenomena are illusory. A Dunhuang copy is the oldest dated printed book known, and it is also described as the oldest surviving printed book.

Buddhist Monasticism, Practice, and Sacred Sites

• Monastic community
  • sangha — The sangha is the Buddhist monastic community, one of the Three Jewels alongside the Buddha and the dharma. It includes ordained monks and nuns and, in broader usage, the full community of devout Buddhists.
• monastic practices
  • begging — In Buddhist contexts, begging or receiving alms is the practice expected of monks and bhikkhus. The practice can be ritualized as takuhatsu, where monks solicit food to allow lay donors to earn merit.
• Monasticism

  • Buddhist monasteries — These Buddhist religious sites house monks and nuns, preserve the Vinaya discipline, and often center on a vihara or temple complex. Examples include Shaolin, Nalanda, and many monasteries shaped by East and Southeast Asian patronage and ritual life.

  • Buddhist monk — A Buddhist monk is a member of the monastic community living in a Buddhist monastery. Quizbowl clues often mention figures such as Kukai, the sohei, or Thich Quang Duc’s self-immolation.

  • Buddhist nuns — Buddhist nuns, or bhikkhunis, are ordained women in the sangha who observe the vinaya plus the Eight Garudhammas. Therigatha, Mahapajapati Gotami, and efforts to restore full ordination are common clues for this topic.

• pilgrimage sites

  • Bodh Gaya — Bodh Gaya is the Indian pilgrimage site where the Buddha attained enlightenment beneath the Bodhi tree. It is home to the Mahabodhi Temple complex and is central to many Buddhist traditions.

  • Sarnath — Sarnath, near Varanasi, is the Buddhist pilgrimage site where the Buddha delivered his first sermon in the Deer Park. It is also associated with Ashoka’s Lion Capital and other monuments honoring the Buddha’s first teaching.

• ritual arts
  • Ikebana — Ikebana is the Japanese art of formal flower arrangement, developed from Buddhist ritual practice. It emphasizes controlled placement and balance of stems and blossoms in a single container such as a bowl or vase, and includes formal styles such as rikka, moribana, shoka, and nageire.
• Ritual gestures
  • mudra — A mudra is a symbolic hand gesture used in Hinduism and Buddhism, especially in ritual, dance, sculpture, and painting. Different mudras are associated with particular actions, meanings, or depictions of the Buddha.
• Ritual objects
  • wheels — These ritual wheels are used in Tibetan Buddhism, where rotating them or inscribing mantras symbolizes prayer and dharma. The dharmachakra appears in South Asian religions and on the Indian flag, and related images include Jagannath’s chariot wheel and the Buddhist wheel of law.
• sacred objects
  • Buddhist relics — Buddhist relics are sacred remains or objects associated with the Buddha or bodhisattvas, including hair, bone, teeth, and sarira. They are enshrined in stupas and revered as powerful signs of sanctity, especially in Sri Lankan traditions.
• Buddhist monasticism
  • Buddhist monks — Buddhist monks, or bhikkhu, are ordained members of the sangha who follow monastic rules such as the Vinaya and pratimoksha. The tradition includes both male monks and bhikkhuni nuns, and is associated with saffron robes, alms, retreats, and disciplined renunciation.
• Buddhist architecture
  • Borobudur — Borobudur is the great ninth-century Buddhist temple on Java, arranged as terraces that represent the Buddhist realms. It is a massive stepped stupa complex with many smaller stupas, famous for its reliefs and a pilgrimage path that spirals upward through the structure. It was discovered by the British in the early nineteenth century and lies near Yogyakarta in central Java.
• Bhikkhuni
  • Mahapajapati Gotami — Mahapajapati Gotami was the Buddha’s aunt and foster mother, and Buddhist tradition credits her as the first bhikkhuni. She is linked to the Eight Garudhammas, the extra rules of ordination for nuns.

East Asian Traditions

Connect East Asian traditions to their central concepts and practices.

Confucianism

• Confucius (Kong Qiu / Kongzi) — the foundational thinker of the Confucian tradition; born in the state of Lu (present-day Shandong, China), 551–479 BCE; his collected sayings are recorded in the Analects (Lunyu).

• Note on categorization — Confucianism is sometimes described as an ethical and social philosophy rather than a religion in the Western sense, though it involves ritual, veneration of ancestors, and has functioned as a state religion in East Asian societies.

• Ren — benevolence, humaneness, or loving others; the central virtue in Confucian ethics. Also romanized jen; cultivated alongside li in the Confucian ideal of moral relationships and given deeper metaphysical significance in later Mencian thought.

• Li — ritual propriety, etiquette, and social norms; correct performance of ritual maintains social harmony.

• Yi — Confucian virtue of moral rightness or acting as a situation properly requires, often contrasted with pursuing private profit regardless of obligation. It is one of Mengzi’s cultivated moral sprouts, often paired with humaneness, ritual propriety, and wisdom.

• Zhi — Confucian moral wisdom: the cultivated discernment needed to recognize what is right, understand people and circumstances, and put ethical knowledge into practice.

• Five Relationships — ruler/subject, parent/child, husband/wife, elder/younger brother, friend/friend; each involves reciprocal obligations; the first four are hierarchical.

• Filial Piety (Xiao) — devotion and respect toward parents and ancestors; a cornerstone of Confucian social ethics.

• Junzi — the “gentleman” or “exemplary person”; Confucius’s ideal moral exemplar who cultivates virtue and governs by example. In Confucian thought, this ideal is associated with virtue, propriety, and humanity, and is contrasted with lesser conduct.

• Mencius (Mengzi) — Confucius’s most important follower (4th century BCE); argued that human nature is fundamentally good.

• Xunzi — another major Confucian thinker (3rd century BCE); argued human nature is inclined toward self-interest and requires ritual and education to become good. He was contemporary with Mencius and is associated with the surviving work Xunzi, which discusses the rectification of names, the constant nature of Heaven, and the training of morally disciplined rulers.

• Neo-Confucianism — a revival and synthesis of Confucian thought with Buddhist and Daoist elements, beginning in the Song dynasty; key figure: Zhu Xi (1130–1200).

• Four Books — the Analects, Mencius, Great Learning, and Doctrine of the Mean; canonized by Zhu Xi as the central Confucian curriculum.
  • The Great Learning — The Great Learning, or Daxue, is one of the Confucian Four Books and was originally an excerpt from the Book of Rites. Attributed to Zengzi and later edited by Zhu Xi, it emphasizes the investigation of things and the ordering of conduct.

• Wang Yangming (1472–1529) — Ming-dynasty Neo-Confucian philosopher; developed the “School of Mind” (Xinxue) opposing Zhu Xi’s externalist approach; taught the unity of knowledge and action and the innate moral knowledge (liangzhi) present in all people.

• Tianming (Mandate of Heaven) — the Chinese political-religious doctrine that Heaven (Tian) grants legitimate rule to virtuous rulers; if a dynasty becomes corrupt, Heaven withdraws its mandate and allows it to fall; used to legitimize dynastic transitions throughout Chinese history.

• Five Classics — the canon of pre-Confucian texts: Book of Changes (I Ching/Yijing), Book of Documents (Shujing), Book of Songs (Shijing), Record of Rites (Liji), and Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu); a sixth classic, the Book of Music, is said to have been lost. The Five Classics are the traditional Confucian canonical texts associated with the early Zhou period. They include the Book of Changes, Book of Songs, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, and Spring and Autumn Annals. They were paired with the Four Books in traditional Chinese education and served as authoritative models for moral and political learning, becoming central to later examinations and classical scholarship.

• Rectification of Names (Zhengming) — Confucius’s doctrine that social order depends on calling things by their proper names; “Let the ruler be a ruler, the minister a minister, the father a father, the son a son.”

• Chinese philosophy
  • Confucianism — Confucianism is an ancient Chinese ethical, social, and political tradition associated with Confucius and the Analects. It emphasizes virtues such as ren, yi, and xiao, filial piety, social hierarchy, the rectification of names, the mean, and the five relationships. Its core texts include the Analects and the Five Classics, and later thinkers such as Zhu Xi developed it into a major scholastic tradition.
    • Confucian virtues
      • filial piety — Filial piety, or xiao, is the Confucian virtue of reverence and duty toward parents and ancestors. It is a central Confucian ideal that also appears in the Classic of Filial Piety and related exemplars, and it extends into the five relationships of classical ethics. Clues can include stories of self-sacrifice, the rejection of Buddhist monastic withdrawal, and the claim that it is the root of moral teaching.

    • Confucianism or Kong jiao — Confucianism is the Chinese ethical and philosophical system centered on filial piety, ritual propriety, and humane relationships. Its classic texts include the Analects and the I Ching, and thinkers such as Mencius and Xunzi developed its tradition.

    • Li Ji — The Li Ji, or Book of Ritual, is a Confucian text on court conduct and ceremonial practice. It is one of the classic ritual books of Chinese tradition.
• Chinese classics
  • I Ching — The I Ching, or Book of Changes, is an ancient Chinese divination classic organized around eight trigrams and sixty-four hexagrams made from broken and solid lines. It is traditionally linked to Fu Hsi, King Wen, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius, with major commentaries known as the Ten Wings. It is consulted with yarrow stalks or three coins and has been influential in Confucian, Taoist, and later New Age contexts. Leibniz used it to illustrate binary arithmetic, and it also influenced readers such as Jung and John Cage.
    • bagua — Bagua are the eight trigrams of Chinese cosmology used in feng shui and the I Ching. Each symbol consists of three broken or unbroken lines and is used to map yin and yang correlations.
• The Shih Ching — The Shih Ching, or Book of Songs, is the oldest of the Chinese Five Classics and a foundational text of classical Chinese poetry. Tradition credits Confucius with selecting its 305 poems, which mix peasant life, court songs, and dynastic hymns.

Daoism (Taoism)

• Origins — a Chinese philosophical and religious tradition; the foundational text, the Tao Te Ching (also Daodejing), is attributed to the semi-legendary Laozi (Lao Tzu), traditionally dated to the 6th century BCE.

• Tao (Dao) — “the Way”; the ineffable, ultimate principle underlying and sustaining all things; cannot be fully described in language.

• Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) — the foundational text of Daoism attributed to Laozi; approximately 81 short chapters of verse; one of the most translated texts in world history; the title means roughly “the classic of the Way and its Virtue/Power.”

• Te (De) — “virtue” or “power”; the expression of the Tao through individual beings.

• Wu Wei — “non-action” or effortless action; acting in accordance with the natural flow of the Tao rather than forcing outcomes. It is also described in legalist terms as a technique for governing by doing nothing and letting ministers be controlled by the ruler’s restraint.

• Zhuangzi — the second foundational Daoist text, attributed to the philosopher Zhuangzi (c. 4th century BCE); famous for its parables, including the story of the butterfly dream (“Am I a man dreaming I am a butterfly, or a butterfly dreaming I am a man?”) and the parable of Cook Ding carving the ox. It is traditionally associated with Zhuang Zhou and survives as a 33-chapter work divided into Inner, Outer, and Miscellaneous sections. The text develops ideas of harmony with nature, spontaneity, and the relativity of perspectives, often through paradoxical stories and dialogues with Hui Shi, and it also includes the fish-happiness exchange with Huizi.

• Three Purities (Sanqing) — the three highest deities in the Daoist pantheon: Yuanshi Tianzun (Heavenly Worthy of the Primordial Beginning), Lingbao Tianzun, and Daode Tianzun (an apotheosis of Laozi); represent the highest divine triad in religious Daoism.

• Yin and Yang — complementary, interdependent forces (dark/light, receptive/active, etc.) whose balance reflects Daoist harmony. It is often represented by the taijitu, a circle divided into black and white halves with opposite-colored dots, and is associated with the five phases, the Bagua trigrams, and Daoist creation myths involving Pangu.

• Religious Daoism (Daojiao) — the organized religious tradition distinct from the philosophical (Daojia); includes liturgical, ritual, and alchemical practices aimed at longevity and immortality; the Celestial Masters tradition (founded by Zhang Daoling, c. 142 CE) is a major school.

• Daoist Canon (Daozang) — the collected texts of the Daoist tradition; the current version compiled in the Ming dynasty contains over 1,400 texts.

• Immortals (Xian) — beings who have attained immortality through Daoist cultivation; a key concept in religious Daoism.

• Daoism — Daoism is a Chinese religious and philosophical tradition associated with Laozi, the Dao or Way, and the principles of wu wei and naturalness, often understood as action through inaction and harmony with nature. Its classic texts include the Dao De Jing (Tao Te Ching) and the Zhuangzi, and it is also linked with yin and yang cosmology, the Taijitu symbol, the I Ching, the Three Treasures, and figures such as the Jade Emperor, the Three Pure Ones, and the Eight Immortals. Famous images associated with it include the Butterfly Dream and the uncarved block.
  • Celestial Masters
    • Five Pecks of Rice — The Five Pecks of Rice was the original name of the Celestial Masters movement founded by Zhang Daoling in the second century. Its name came from the rice donation initiates were asked to make, and it later developed into a theocratic state in Sichuan.

  • Chinese alchemy — Chinese alchemy is the Taoist practice aimed at producing an elixir of immortality, with external alchemy called waidan and internal alchemy called neidan. Questions often reference the Three Corpses and Nine Worms, cinnabar fields, or the deadly mercury products associated with imperial experiments.

  • Dao De Jing — The Dao De Jing is the foundational Daoist classic traditionally attributed to Laozi. It is an 81-chapter Chinese text of brief, aphoristic sayings that praises wu wei, naturalness, simplicity, nonaction, and the usefulness of emptiness or the uncarved block. It opens with the claim that the way that can be spoken or named is not the constant or enduring Way, and it uses paradoxical images such as the empty bowl, the mysterious female, infants, and straw dogs. Its famous teachings include the idea that true perfection may seem imperfect, and one version includes the parable of the farmer whose lost horse turns out to be a blessing.

  • Deities

    • the Three Pure Ones — The Three Pure Ones are the highest deities in Taoism, above the Jade Emperor and the rest of the pantheon. Yuqing and Taishang are among the names attached to this divine triad, and Laozi is sometimes identified with one of them.

    • Three Pure Ones — The Three Pure Ones are the highest gods in Taoism, with Yuanshi Tianzun among them. They are central to Daoist cosmology and are often linked with the three fundamental energies jing, qi, and shen.

  • Immortals — In Daoism, immortals are transcendent beings associated with cultivation, meditation, and alchemical practices that were believed to produce longevity or deathlessness. Chinese and Vietnamese folklore both feature groups of these undying figures, including the Taoist Eight Immortals and related local spirit traditions.

  • Laozi — Laozi is the legendary Chinese sage traditionally credited as the founder of Daoism and the author of the Tao Te Ching, also called the Daodejing or Dao De Jing. He is associated with teachings on simplicity, naturalness, wu wei, ziran, and the Three Jewels, as well as the saying that the Dao that can be named is not the eternal Dao. Later tradition depicts him as a semi-legendary figure who left his post at the royal archives, met Confucius, was stopped at a border pass or gate, and composed the text before disappearing; some religious Taoists venerate him as a deity. He is also given honorific names such as Master Lao and Tai-Shang Lao-Chun.

  • Symbols
    • Taijitu — Taijitu is the Daoist diagram often known in the West as the yin-yang symbol. It represents the interaction of opposing forces within the supreme ultimate and appears in forms associated with Chinese and Korean traditions.

  • wu wei (“woo way”) — Wu wei is the Daoist ideal of effortless action or non-doing, describing conduct that is spontaneous and in harmony with the Dao. It is often contrasted with ziran, the idea of naturalness or self-so.

  • ziran — Ziran is the Taoist idea of naturalness or spontaneity, literally “so of itself.” It is paired with wu wei as a key Daoist ideal of things existing without artificial human interference.
• Chinese martial arts
  • Tai chi — Tai chi is a slow internal Chinese martial art often practiced for health, balance, and meditation. It is associated with qigong-style breathing and flowing movement, and its major styles include Chen, Yang, and Sun. It is also linked to legends such as Zhang Sanfeng and to feng shui ideas such as using a luópăn compass to orient structures.

Shinto

• Shinto — The indigenous religion of Japan, centered on kami, shrine worship, purity and purification rituals, and the idea of a “way of the gods.” It uses torii gates, jinja shrines, ema plaques, shrine clapping, harai, kagura, and may revere kami in shrines, household altars, or natural places. Its early texts include the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, and its mythology includes Izanagi and Izanami, Amaterasu, Susanoo’s slaying of Yamata no Orochi, Amaterasu’s retreat into a cave, Yomi, and claims about imperial descent from the sun goddess. Major sacred sites and figures mentioned include Ise Jingu, dedicated to Amaterasu, and Inari. Shinto has long coexisted and mixed with Buddhism, and has been described in Shrine, Sect, and New Sect traditions, with later division into state shrines and sectarian churches.

  • Amaterasu-no-mikoto — Amaterasu-no-mikoto is the Shinto sun goddess. Clues often mention her cave retreat after Susanoo’s violence, along with the imperial regalia of mirror, jewel, and sword sent by her descendant.

  • Deities
    • Uke Mochi — Uke Mochi is a Shinto food goddess linked to rice and fertility. In variants of her myth, Tsukuyomi or Susanoo kills her after she produces a feast from her body.

  • Hachiman — Hachiman is a major Shinto kami of war, often syncretized with a bodhisattva identity and identified with the deified Emperor Ōjin. He is associated with eight banners, doves as messengers, archery, the kamikaze, and the Minamoto, and is especially linked to shrines such as Usa and Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū in Kamakura. Traditions also connect him with a miraculous birth on Tsushima and with the architectural style Hachiman-zukuri.

  • Imperial regalia
    • magatama — Magatama are comma-shaped Japanese beads that can serve as shintai, or objects in which kami may reside. One of the imperial regalia is the Yasakani no Magatama, alongside the mirror and sword.

  • Kagutsuchi-no-kami — Kagutsuchi-no-kami is the Japanese Shinto fire kami, a child of Izanagi and Izanami. His birth fatally burned Izanami and is linked to myths of Yomi and the origins of fire; in one tradition, Izanagi kills him, and his body is cut into pieces that become volcanoes.

  • Kojiki — The Kojiki is the earliest surviving Japanese chronicle, compiled in 712 in the early eighth century by Ō no Yasumaro. Its title means an account of ancient matters. It preserves Japan’s creation myth, the ancestry of the imperial family, and Shinto myths and customs, including the deeds of deities such as Susanoo and Amaterasu. It became central to later nativist scholarship and is older than the Nihon Shoki.

  • kokugaku — Kokugaku was the Tokugawa-era Japanese nativist movement known as “national studies.” Motoori Norinaga was one of its major figures, and the movement sought to recover Japanese tradition by stripping away Buddhist and Chinese influence.

  • misogi — Misogi is a Shinto purification ritual involving ritual washing or immersion, often under cold water or a waterfall. It belongs to the broader practice of harae and is associated with cleansing before worship.

  • Ninigi-no-mikoto — Ninigi-no-mikoto is a Shinto deity sent down from heaven to rule the earthly realm and plant rice. He is the grandson of Amaterasu and the great-grandfather of Emperor Jimmu, and he received the Imperial Regalia before descending to earth.

  • Purification rites
    • Harae — Harae is the Shinto purification ritual that cleanses people or objects of pollution before worship begins. It is often performed with water and salt, and haraigushi wands may be waved over what is being purified.

  • Ryobu Shinto — Ryobu Shinto was a Japanese syncretic form of Shinto that incorporated Shingon Buddhism. Its name means the Shinto of two kinds, and it was associated with the ninth-century unification of Shinto and Buddhism under Kukai.

  • sacred objects and architecture

    • Ropes — Shimenawa are sacred Shinto ropes, often hung with shide and used to mark objects or spaces associated with kami. They appear at shrines such as Izumo Grand Shrine and are linked to rituals of purification and exclusion.

    • torii gates — Torii gates are the traditional Japanese gates that mark the transition into sacred Shinto space. They usually have two posts with a lintel and tie beam and are often painted vermilion, though simpler rope versions also exist.

  • Sect Shinto — Sect Shinto is the label for the decentralized Shinto denominations that emerged in modern Japan. The term is also used more generally for a religious sect within a broader tradition, and it includes groups organized around a founder.

  • Shichi-Go-San — Shichi-Go-San is the Japanese celebration on November 15 when children aged three, five, and seven are taken to Shinto shrines. It marks rites of passage such as wearing formal kimono accessories and receiving chitose ame candy.

  • Shinto myth — Shinto myth is the traditional myth system of Japan, centered on kami such as Amaterasu and Susanoo. Common clues include the cave episode of Amaterasu, Susanoo’s killing of the eight-headed serpent, and the descent of divine figures tied to shrine worship and torii.

  • Shinto mythology — The traditional religion and myth system of Japan, centered on kami such as Amaterasu, Susanoo, Izanagi, and Izanami. Its stories include Susanoo’s slaying of the eight-headed serpent Orochi, Amaterasu’s cave retreat, the purification and shrine traditions associated with Japanese sacred sites, torii gates, the Treasure Ship of the Seven Gods of Luck, and the grass-cutter sword taken from Orochi’s tail.

  • Shinto shrines — Shinto shrines are the places of worship in the Japanese religion of Shinto, dedicated to kami. They are commonly marked by torii gates and often include a honden, purification facilities such as a temizuya, fences or approach roads, and distinctive roof styles; sacred mirrors may be enshrined there. Associated rituals and objects include purification, ema plaques, omamori charms, paper fortunes that may be tied up when unfavorable, and guardian komainu statues. The Grand Shrine at Ise is a major example.

  • Shrine architecture
    • honden — The honden is the inner sanctuary of a Shinto shrine, usually marked off from the public and often housing a mirror or statue representing the kami. Some mountain shrines lack a honden when the mountain itself is treated as the deity’s dwelling.
  • The word ‘Shinto’ roughly translates to this phrase in English — Shinto literally means “the way of the gods” in English. The term names Japan’s indigenous religious tradition centered on kami, ritual purity, and local shrines.

• Origins — the indigenous spirituality of Japan; no single founder or founding date; the term Shinto (“way of the gods”) was used to distinguish Japanese practices from Buddhism after Buddhism arrived in Japan (c. 6th century CE).

• Kami — the spirits or divine forces revered in Shinto; they inhabit natural phenomena (mountains, rivers, trees), ancestors, and exceptional human beings; said to number “eight million” (yaoyorozu no kami), a figure indicating innumerability. They include figures such as Amaterasu, Susano’o, Izanagi, and Izanami, and are associated with creation myths, the Heavenly Cave, and other central stories of Japanese religion.

  • Ame-no-Uzume-no-mikoto — Ame-no-Uzume-no-mikoto is a Shinto kami of dawn, art, and dance who lured Amaterasu from her cave with a provocative performance. She is also associated with Sarutahiko and with the mirror used to entice the sun goddess out into the light.

  • Ebisu — Ebisu is a Shinto kami of luck and fishermen, and one of the Seven Lucky Gods. He is sometimes said to be absent from the annual kami gathering because he is deaf and cannot hear the summons.

  • Inari Ōkami — Inari Ōkami is a Shinto kami associated with rice, agriculture, fertility, tea, and industry, often depicted as a fox or accompanied by fox messengers. The deity is commonly linked with kitsune, and is sometimes imagined as taking fox form itself.

  • Sarutahiko Okami — Sarutahiko Okami is a Shinto earth kami of the crossroads who greets Ninigi when he descends from heaven. He is often portrayed as a towering, red-faced figure associated with a spear, tengu-like features, and his marriage to Uzume.

• Shrine (Jinja) — the place of worship for kami; the most sacred is the Ise Grand Shrine (Ise Jingu), dedicated to Amaterasu.

• Amaterasu — the sun goddess; ancestral deity of the Japanese imperial family; a central figure in Japanese mythology.

• Kojiki and Nihon Shoki — the two oldest chronicles of Japan (compiled in 712 and 720 CE respectively); record Japanese mythology, cosmogony, and early history.

• Torii — the iconic gate marking the entrance to a Shinto shrine, symbolizing the boundary between the mundane and sacred.

• Misogi and Harae — Shinto purification rites; misogi involves ritual washing; harae is a broader term for purification ceremonies.

• Matsuri — festivals honoring kami; a central practice of communal Shinto life.

• State Shinto — a politically promoted form of Shinto used by the Meiji government (from 1868) to legitimize imperial rule; dismantled after World War II.

• Shrine vs. Temple — Shinto shrines (jinja) are distinct from Buddhist temples (tera/ji); it is common in Japan to practice both Shinto and Buddhism simultaneously (a phenomenon known as shinbutsu-shugo).

• Ise — Ise Grand Shrine, or Ise Jingu, is the major Shinto shrine in Mie Prefecture dedicated to Amaterasu. It is ritually rebuilt every twenty years and is one of the holiest sites in Shinto.

Shinto shrines and ritual practice

• Haiden and honden — Two distinct shrine spaces: the haiden is the hall of worship, while the honden is the main sanctuary. Their functions help distinguish the place where worship is offered from the shrine’s inner sacred center.¹

• Haraigushi / haraegushi — A purification implement consisting of a wooden wand with attached linen or paper streamers. It is waved during harae rites. Related implements can use a sacred evergreen branch; their ritual role is purification.¹

• Hatsumōde / hatsumode — The first shrine visit of the New Year, associated with prayers for well-being and protection in the coming year. It is an occasion of seasonal worship rather than a separate religion or a shrine’s architectural feature.¹

• Kamidana — A household Shinto altar, often translated as a god-shelf. Shrine amulets or sacred tablets are enshrined there, and offerings and worship bring devotion into domestic life. Its household setting distinguishes it from a public shrine building.²

• Kannushi — A Shinto priest; the term historically referred to a shrine’s chief religious officiant or a person qualified to act as a medium for a kami. Modern usage commonly overlaps with shinshoku, the general term for shrine clergy.² They officiate at shrines and purification rituals such as harae, and may preside over rites like jingu and special prayers for petitioners.

• Kegare — Ritual pollution or an inauspicious condition that obstructs participation in sacred activity. Historical sources associate it with matters such as death and bodily processes; purification and temporary avoidance address it. Harae names rites that remove pollution, rather than the polluted condition itself.²

• Miko — Female shrine attendants whose duties can include ritual dance and assisting ceremonies. Historical uses of the term also include women serving as spirit mediums. The range of roles should not be reduced to a single modern image of shrine service.³ They are commonly associated with red hakama and white robes.

• Mikoshi — A portable divine palanquin used to carry a kami during a festival or transfer between sacred places. Often borne by groups of parishioners, it brings the deity into a procession through the community. It is distinct from the shrine’s permanent sanctuary.³

• Norito — Formal ritual words addressed to kami, recited by an officiant on behalf of worshippers. They can praise deities, identify offerings, and state a prayer’s purpose. Ancient forms preserved in the Engishiki connect present recitation with a history of court and shrine liturgy.⁴

• Shide — Paper or cloth streamers used as sacred offerings and markers, often seen as folded white zigzags. They can hang from shimenawa or attach to ritual wands and evergreen branches. The streamer and the rope that bears it have different names.⁵

• Sakaki — An evergreen tree, Cleyera japonica, whose branches are used in Shinto rites. Branches can bear sacred streamers and serve as offerings or markers of sacred space. This botanical name identifies the plant used in ritual implements.⁵

• Shimenawa — A sacred straw rope marking a purified place or boundary. It can surround a tree or rock or hang before a shrine sanctuary; shide may be attached to it. The rope indicates sacred presence or restricted space rather than functioning as a torii gate.⁶ They are usually made of straw or hemp.

• Kagura — Ceremonial music and dance performed for kami. Its mythic origin is associated with the divine performance that draws Amaterasu from her cave. Court traditions and local sato-kagura differ, so the name includes multiple forms of sacred performance.⁷ It is a Shinto ritual dance performed for the kami, traditionally associated with the myth of Ame-no-Uzume luring Amaterasu from a cave. It appears in shrine festivals and court performance traditions, often with miko and gagaku.

• Shinto offerings

  • ema — An ema is a wooden Shinto votive plaque on which worshippers write wishes for the kami. Ema replaced the older custom of offering horses to shrines.

Further Figures, Narratives, and Practices

• Japanese religion
  • deities

    • Seven Gods of Fortune — The Seven Gods of Fortune are a Japanese group of deities associated with luck and prosperity, often depicted riding the treasure boat during New Year celebrations. Bishamon is one member of the group.

    • Seven Lucky Gods — The Seven Lucky Gods are a Japanese group of deities associated with good fortune, often riding the Treasure Ship during New Year celebrations. Their number and membership reflect a blend of Buddhist, Indian, and Chinese influences, and common members include Benzaiten, Bishamonten, and Daikoku-ten.

  • Ki — Ki is the Japanese word for a vital life force or universal energy. The same phonetic form can also refer to potassium iodide in chemistry.
• Japanese festivals

  • Hinamatsuri — Hinamatsuri is the Japanese Doll Festival celebrated on March 3, when tiered displays of ornamental dolls are arranged on red cloth. It is one of the seasonal gosekku festivals and is also associated with Girls’ Day.

  • Japanese New Year — Japanese New Year is the holiday celebrated on January 1 in Japan, marked by temple bells ringing 108 times and customs such as mochi, osechi-ryori, and otoshidama. It is a major seasonal festival tied to renewal and good fortune.

  • Tanabata — Tanabata is the Japanese Star Festival celebrating the annual meeting of Orihime and Hikoboshi across the Milky Way. It is marked by tanzaku wishes on bamboo and major celebrations such as the Sendai festival.

  • Setsubun — Setsubun is a Japanese seasonal festival held in early February to mark the coming of spring. Its customs include mamemaki, or throwing roasted soybeans, and hanging sardine heads and holly to drive away evil spirits.

East Asian religions

• Chinese festivals

  • Lantern Festival — The Lantern Festival is celebrated on the fifteenth day of the first lunisolar month, at the end of the Spring Festival season. It is associated with hanging and guessing riddles on lanterns and with legends involving glutinous rice balls and the God of Fire.

  • Mid-Autumn Festival — The Mid-Autumn Festival is an East Asian harvest holiday celebrated on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, often marked by full-moon gatherings and mooncakes. Chinese tradition links it to Chang’e, who ascended to the moon after drinking an immortality elixir intended for Houyi.

  • Qingming Festival — The Qingming Festival is a Chinese holiday for honoring ancestors by sweeping graves and making offerings. It falls in early spring, roughly fifteen days after the spring equinox, and is associated with joss paper, green dumplings, and ancestor veneration. It is also linked with memorial observance and Zhang Zeduan’s painting of Kaifeng during the holiday bustle.

• Chinese folk religion
  • Door gods
    • Men-shen — Men-shen are the Chinese door gods placed on temples and house entrances to guard against evil. They are commonly depicted as a pair of fierce guardians with painted faces.

  • Guan Yu — Guan Yu was a late Han and Three Kingdoms warrior, sworn brother of Liu Bei and Zhang Fei, and a loyal follower of Liu Bei in later Romance of the Three Kingdoms traditions. He is associated with the Green Dragon Crescent Blade, the Peach Garden Oath, and feats such as fighting Hua Xiong and beheading Yan Liang and Wen Chou; he was captured and executed after the events at Mai Cheng. He became deified in China as a martial protector and god of war, worshipped in shrines and especially associated with loyalty, martial valor, merchants, police officers, and organized-crime groups. He is often depicted as a red-faced figure with a long beard.

  • Household deities
    • Kitchen God — A Chinese household deity associated with the stove who reports a family’s conduct to the Jade Emperor before the Lunar New Year. Households honor him with ritual offerings and a paper effigy, often sweetening his speech with honey; his image is often burned at Little New Year after the offering, symbolically sending him back to heaven with his report. Stories about his origins vary, including one in which he is a disgraced man tied to a failed marriage and divine punishment and another in which he leaps into fire and is deified as the Stove God.
• Chinese funerary practice
  • joss paper — This is the paper money burned as offerings in Chinese and other East Asian funerary and ancestor rites. It is often printed with images of the Jade Emperor or household goods and may be called hell money, ghost money, or spirit money.
• Chinese geomancy
  • feng shui — Feng shui is the Chinese practice of arranging buildings and objects to harmonize with surrounding nature and the flow of qi. Its name means “wind-water,” and questions often distinguish the Form and Compass schools or mention the luopan compass.
• Chinese new religious movements
  • Falun Gong — Chinese spiritual movement founded by Li Hongzhi in 1992. It combines qigong-style exercises with moral cultivation and Buddhist teachings, especially truthfulness, compassion, and forbearance; practitioners also “send forth righteous thoughts.” The movement has faced severe persecution by the Chinese government since 1999, including accusations of organ harvesting from practitioners. It is associated with Shen Yun and The Epoch Times.
    • Li Hongzhi — Li Hongzhi founded Falun Gong, a movement built around qigong practice and the moral principles of Truthfulness, Compassion, and Forbearance. Quizbowl clues often mention his move to the United States and controversy over his reported birth date.
• Chinese religion
  • ancestor veneration
    • joss — Joss is a Chinese Pidgin English term for offerings used in ancestor veneration and ritual burning, especially joss paper and joss sticks. It can refer to incense burned at festivals or to spirit money given to the dead.

  • Chinese heaven — Chinese heaven, or Tian, is the celestial realm associated with the Mandate of Heaven in traditional Chinese political thought. Daoist and classical texts place the Jade Emperor and other divine beings in this realm, which was contrasted with the human world below it.

  • Festivals
    • Chinese New Year — Chinese New Year, also called the Spring Festival, is the lunar celebration marked by reunion dinners, red envelopes, firecrackers, and the Lantern Festival at its end. Customs include honoring the Kitchen God, hanging couplets and fu characters, and welcoming the new zodiac cycle.

  • Qigong — Qigong is a Chinese discipline of breath control, movement, and meditation aimed at cultivating and balancing qi, or life energy. It is closely associated with Falun Gong and with later twentieth-century popular interest in traditional Chinese self-cultivation practices.

  • Shang Di — Shang Di, also called Shang Ti, is an ancient Chinese supreme deity associated with heaven, storms, and agriculture. The name refers to the god of the Shang dynasty and appears in early Chinese religion.

  • Taoist deities
    • Lei Gong — Lei Gong is the Chinese Taoist lord of thunder, often shown with a drum and hammer and associated with punishing hidden crimes. His consort Dian Mu creates lightning, and depictions may give him blue skin and birdlike features.
  • Three Teachings
    • the Three Vinegar Tasters — The Three Vinegar Tasters is a Chinese painting subject showing Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism sampling vinegar together. Their contrasting sweet, sour, and bitter reactions symbolize the three teachings of Chinese religion.
  • underworld
    • diyu — Diyu is the Chinese Buddhist and Taoist underworld, imagined as an afterlife realm with eighteen levels. Its clues include Yama, Ox-Head and Horse-Face, the Black and White Guard, and the Mulian rescue story tied to the Ghost Festival.
  • Vital energy concepts
    • qi — Qi is the Chinese life force or vital energy that appears in folk religion, martial arts, and Daoist-influenced practice. It is often discussed as the animating force that must be balanced or cultivated through ritual and discipline.
• Chinese religions
  • White Lotus Society — The White Lotus Society was a Chinese secret religious movement and rebellion associated with late imperial anti-government uprisings. It is linked to Ming loyalism, Buddhist symbolism, and the 1796 uprising suppressed under the Qing.
• Chinese religious practice
  • hell money — Hell money is paper currency burned as an offering for the dead in Chinese religious practice. It is also called joss paper or spirit money and is often printed to resemble banknotes.
• Christianity in Japan — Christianity in Japan began in the sixteenth century and grew rapidly before being banned by the Tokugawa regime. After persecution and secret survival by hidden believers, the faith persisted in disguised forms among Japanese converts.
  • Japanese Christians — Japanese Christians, especially the hidden Christians or Kakure Kirishitan, were persecuted after the rise of Christianity in Japan and the Shimabara Rebellion. They were identified by the fumi-e test, in which suspected believers had to trample religious images.
    • Step on a Fumi-e — A fumie was an image of Christ or the Virgin Mary used in Tokugawa Japan to test whether suspected Christians would renounce their faith. In Endo’s Silence, this act of stepping on the image is tied to the persecution of hidden Christians.
• Islam in China
  • Chinese Muslims — A religious minority in China that includes the Hui, Uyghurs, and other groups concentrated in Xinjiang. Associated clues include Zheng He, the Gansu Braves, the Panthay Rebellion, the Dungan Rebellion, the Hundred-Word Eulogy, the Ma Clique, and the internment of Uyghurs in Xinjiang.
• Japanese Christianity
  • fumi-e — Fumi-e were images of Christ or the Virgin Mary used under the Tokugawa shogunate to expose hidden Japanese Christians. Suspects were forced to step on these plates, usually made of bronze or painted stone, to prove they were not Kirishitan.
• Jesuit missions in China
  • Matteo Ricci — Matteo Ricci was an Italian Jesuit missionary who entered Ming China, introduced Christianity there, and adopted Chinese language and customs. He worked with Pompilio Ruggieri on missionary cartographic projects, including the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu world map, and is associated with the first European account of the Kaifeng Jews.

• Korean religion — Korean religion here refers to indigenous Korean folk belief centered on shamans known as mudang. Its rituals include gut ceremonies, and it coexists with or influenced later movements such as Cheondoism.

• Korean religions

  • Cheondogyo — Cheondogyo is a Korean religion that grew out of the Donghak movement and combines native belief with Confucian elements. It was associated with Korean peasant rebellions and later became a recognizable pantheistic tradition in Korea.

  • Tonghak — Tonghak was a Korean religious movement whose name means “Eastern Learning.” Its uprising helped provoke the Sino-Japanese War through foreign intervention in Korea.

Judaism

Follow Jewish texts, history, interpretation, and religious life.

Judaism

• Origins — the Abrahamic religion of the Jewish people; traces its origins to the covenant between Abraham and God described in the Hebrew Bible; the Exodus narrative (liberation from Egypt under Moses) is central to Jewish identity.

• Monotheism — Judaism affirms a strict, uncompromising monotheism: there is one God (YHWH), who is indivisible.
  • Monotheistic — Monotheistic religions worship one god as the sole deity worthy of worship. Din-i Ilahi is cited as an example of this kind of religion.
• Covenant — the binding relationship between God and the Jewish people; the covenant with Abraham (circumcision as a sign), and the Sinai covenant (the Torah) are central.
  • the Covenant — The Covenant is the Jewish and Baháʼí concept of binding agreement between God and a chosen people or succession of leaders. In Jewish contexts it is symbolized by the Ark of the Covenant, while in the Baháʼí Faith it refers to the line of authority established by Baháʼu’lláh and his successors.

• 613 Commandments (Mitzvot) — the total count of commandments in the Torah as enumerated by rabbinic tradition; include 248 positive (“do”) and 365 negative (“do not”) commandments.

• Halakha — Jewish law governing all aspects of life; derived from Torah, Talmud, and later rabbinic codes including Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah and Joseph Karo’s Shulchan Aruch. It covers legal and ritual conduct, and rabbinic ordination empowered judges to decide questions in this field.
  • mamzerim — Mamzerim are people born from certain forbidden Jewish unions, often rendered as bastards in English translation. In traditional Jewish law, this status restricts marriage, since a mamzer may marry only another mamzer.
• Synagogue — the Jewish house of prayer and community; led by a rabbi (teacher/scholar).

  • bimah — The bimah is the raised platform in a synagogue from which the Torah is read. It is typically elevated above the congregation and serves as the focal point for aliyot and related services.

  • the ark — In a synagogue, this is the main receptacle for the Torah scrolls and is usually covered by a curtain called the parochet. The Ner Tamid, or eternal light, hangs in front of it.

• Diaspora — the dispersion of Jewish communities outside the Land of Israel; accelerated after the destruction of the First Temple by Babylon (586 BCE) and the Second Temple by Rome (70 CE).

• Key figures — Abraham (patriarch), Isaac, Jacob (Israel), Moses (law-giver and prophet), David (king), Solomon (builder of the First Temple), and the Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, etc.).

• Yahweh (YHWH) — the personal name of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible; rendered in the Masoretic text as the four consonants yod-heh-vav-heh (the Tetragrammaton); considered too sacred to pronounce in traditional Jewish practice, where it is replaced aloud by Adonai (“Lord”) or HaShem (“the Name”); the vocalization “Yahweh” is scholarly reconstruction; the form “Jehovah” arose from a medieval conflation of the Tetragrammaton consonants with the vowels of Adonai.

• Hillel — Hillel the Elder (c. 110 BCE – 10 CE), a foundational rabbinic sage; his school (Beit Hillel) is contrasted throughout the Talmud with the stricter Beit Shammai; famous for summarizing the Torah while standing on one foot: “What is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor — that is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary, go and learn it.” He was a major rabbinic authority from Babylon who headed the Sanhedrin. He is remembered for the more lenient school associated with his name, for his seven rules of interpretation, for the prosbul, and for later Passover customs including the Hillel sandwich. His name is also used by Jewish organizations on college campuses.

• Hasmonean — the Jewish dynasty that ruled Judea c. 140–37 BCE; descended from the Maccabees who led the revolt against Seleucid rule and whose victory is commemorated by Hanukkah; the dynasty eventually became Hellenized and was replaced by Herod the Great (an Idumean appointed by Rome).

• Lilith — in Jewish post-biblical and Kabbalistic tradition, a female demon associated with the night; in some midrashic accounts, Lilith is Adam’s first wife (created simultaneously with him from the earth) who left the Garden in defiance; she appears in the Babylonian Talmud as a dangerous night-spirit; her story was developed in the medieval Alphabet of Ben Sira; in Kabbalah she is associated with Samael and the demonic realm.

• Firstborn (Bekhor) — the firstborn son holds a special status in Jewish law; the tenth plague in Exodus (the death of all Egyptian firstborn, which spared the Israelites) is the climactic event of the liberation narrative; in Jewish law, all firstborn males are consecrated to God (Exodus 13:2) but are “redeemed” through the Pidyon Haben ceremony (redemption of the firstborn son, performed on the 31st day after birth by paying a kohen); in the Temple era, the tribe of Levi replaced the firstborn as temple servants (Numbers 3).

• Yahweh — The personal name of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, written as the Tetragrammaton (YHWH). In traditional Jewish reading it is not pronounced aloud and is replaced by Adonai or HaShem. The name is sometimes rendered Yahweh or Latinized as Jehovah. It appears in biblical and epigraphic contexts such as Exodus 3:15 and the Mesha Stele, and scholarship has linked its worship to early West Semitic or Canaanite religion.

Major branches of modern Judaism

• Orthodox — adheres strictly to traditional halakha; believes the Torah was divinely revealed at Sinai; includes Modern Orthodox (engagement with secular society) and Haredi (ultra-Orthodox, more insular) communities.

• Conservative (Masorti) — accepts halakha as binding but allows scholarly reinterpretation; developed in 19th-century Germany and grew in 20th-century America.

• Reform — emphasizes ethical monotheism and personal autonomy over ritual law; originated in 19th-century Germany.

• Reconstructionist — views Judaism as an evolving civilization; founded by Mordecai Kaplan in the 20th century.

• Kaplan — Kaplan is the surname of Mordecai Kaplan, the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism, and of his daughter Judith Kaplan, who had the first public bat mitzvah. It is also shared by figures such as Ari Kaplan and David Kaplan, appearing in religious, musical, and philosophical contexts.

Scripture and texts

• Indian religions
  • ethical principles
    • satya — Satya is the Hindu and Jain vow or principle of truthfulness. It is one of the yamas, or ethical restraints, and is often qualified by the idea that truth should not cause harm.

  • Karman — Karman is the doctrine of moral causation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, where deeds produce consequences that shape rebirth and liberation. In Jain thought it is often treated as a material accumulation that the soul must shed to attain release.

  • non-violence — Ahimsa is the principle of non-violence or not harming living beings, especially important in Jainism. It is linked to vegetarian practice, sweeping insects aside while walking, and the first Buddhist precept.

  • sutra — A sutra is a doctrinal scripture in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. Quizbowl clues include the Diamond Sutra, Lotus Sutra, Heart Sutra, and other canonical or devotional texts.

Law and practice

• Hair practices
  • cutting hair — Cutting hair is the action commonly invoked in myths and religions from Samson and Delilah to Sikh and monastic tonsure practices. Related clues include the queue hairstyle under the Qing, the tonsure, and ritual head-shaving in several traditions.
• Marriage rites
  • wedding — A wedding is a marriage ceremony in which a couple is joined, typically marked by vows and other cultural or religious customs such as rings, veils, ritual processions, dowries, bridewealth, legal or religious contracts, the Jewish huppah and glass-breaking, the Hindu saptapadi and fire-circling, mehndi, Shinto sake rituals, the Persian and Chinese forms, and the Chinese red umbrella. Related examples include the Cana miracle, the Arnolfini portrait, the Greek mythic feast of Peleus and Thetis, parables about wedding feasts, and the occasion that triggers the Trojan War through Eris’s golden apple.

    • brides — Brides are the wedding participants who play a central role in rituals across Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and South Asian traditions. They are associated with the bridal chorus, the chuppah, the ketubah, and the Sabbath metaphor of Lecha Dodi.

    • Hindu marriage — Hindu marriage, or vivaha, is the sacramental wedding rite in which the couple exchanges garlands, circles a sacred fire, and enters the household life. Ritual markers include the mangalsutra, the baraat, and sindoor, with regional forms ranging from arranged marriage to gandharva marriage.

      • Hindu wedding — This is the Hindu marriage ceremony, typically centered on the mandap and the Saptapadi around a sacred fire. Rituals such as the tying of the mangalsutra and the exchange of garlands often mark the union.

      • Hindu weddings — Hindu weddings are marriage rituals that feature the saptapadi, the kanyadana, the mangalsutra, and the exchange of garlands before the sacred fire. Clues may mention the baraat, henna, the red sari, and regional variations such as Tamil or Bengali customs.

      • saptapadi — Saptapadi is the seven-step rite at the center of a Hindu wedding ceremony, performed around the sacred fire of Agni. It is linked to the kanyadaan, mangalsutra, and other marriage customs that formalize the union of bride and groom.

    • ketubah — A ketubah is the Jewish marriage contract that states the groom’s obligations to the bride. Traditionally written in Aramaic and read under the chuppah, it was once a legal instrument and is now often ceremonial.

    • mazel tov! — Mazel tov is the Hebrew congratulatory phrase meaning good fortune or good luck. At a Jewish wedding it is shouted after the groom breaks a glass with his foot, usually as a sign of celebration.

    • Mutʿah — Mutʿah is an Islamic temporary marriage arranged for a set time and price. It is associated with Shiʿite practice and rejected by many Sunnis.

Jewish communities

• Jews — Jews are the Abrahamic religious and ethnic group centered on Judaism and synagogue worship. Historically they were often treated as a non-Christian minority in Europe and are associated with the Torah, the Diaspora, anti-Jewish persecution, the Holocaust, Kristallnacht, and the Nazi Final Solution. Related historical and literary references include the “Jewish Question,” the Pale of Settlement, pogroms, expulsions from European states, the Good Friday prayer, the Roman razzia, the Bar Kokhba revolt, Josephus’s account of the Jewish revolt against Rome, the destruction of the Second Temple, the Sassanid-era revolt in Jerusalem, Washington’s letter to Newport, and the figures Shylock and Barabas.

  • crypto-Jews — Crypto-Jews were Jews who secretly practiced Judaism under persecution, especially in Iberia during the Inquisition. The term is often linked with conversos, New Christians, and related communities such as the Xuetes of Mallorca.

  • European Jews — European Jews were targeted by persecutions ranging from the Spanish Inquisition and blood libel to the Holocaust. The group is commonly divided into Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities.

Further Figures, Narratives, and Practices

• Cities of the Plain
  • Admah or Zeboim — Admah and Zeboim were two of the cities destroyed together with Sodom and Gomorrah. They appear in the biblical account of the cities of the plain.
• Ancient Judaism
  • Dead Sea Scrolls — Ancient Jewish manuscripts discovered near Qumran in caves by the Dead Sea. They include sectarian texts such as the Manual of Discipline, the War Scroll, and commentary texts, along with biblical manuscripts like the oldest complete Isaiah scroll. They are often linked to the Essenes and the Shrine of the Book in Jerusalem. Commonly associated with the War of the Sons of Light and Darkness. The Rule of the Community and Temple Scroll are further important texts in the collection.
• Textual traditions
  • Masoretic text — The Masoretic text is the standard medieval Hebrew Bible tradition, assembled by Jewish scribes in Babylonia and Palestine between the sixth and tenth centuries CE. It became the basis for Martin Luther’s Old Testament translation rather than the Septuagint.
• Ark of the Covenant — The sacred chest associated with the tablets of the Ten Commandments and the Holy of Holies of Solomon’s Temple. Biblical traditions connect it with the Exodus, Jericho, the Philistines, Uzzah’s death, the jar of manna, and Aaron’s budded staff. Ethiopian tradition and the Kebra Nagast say Menelik I brought it to Ethiopia, and later stories link its fate to Ethiopia and to Indiana Jones’s search for it.
  • Mercy seat — The mercy seat is the golden lid placed atop the Ark of the Covenant, flanked by cherubim in the biblical Tabernacle. The title also appears in Nick Cave’s song “The Mercy Seat,” later famously covered by Johnny Cash.

• Tabernacle — The tabernacle was the portable sanctuary of the Israelites in the wilderness and the original home of the Ark of the Covenant. In Catholic usage, a tabernacle is the vessel or enclosure that stores consecrated hosts.

• Temple materials
  • olive wood — Olive wood is the material named as one of the woods used for the doors of King Solomon’s temple. It is a biblical craft material associated with sacred architecture.

• Sabbatical — A sabbatical is an extended leave or academic break, named by analogy to the biblical sabbatical year. The underlying religious practice is a seven-year agricultural cycle in which land lies fallow, followed after seven cycles by a jubilee year.

• Legal institutions
  • Cities of Refuge — The Cities of Refuge were six biblical cities set aside as safe places for those who committed manslaughter unintentionally. They include Bezer, Ramoth, Golan, Hebron, Shechem, and Kedesh.
• Synagogue furnishings
  • aron kodesh — An aron kodesh contains Torah scrolls, the handwritten scrolls of the five books of Moses used in synagogue worship. Clues point to their crowns, yad pointer, prescribed columns, and the special materials used to prepare the parchment.
• Passover songs
  • Dayenu — Dayenu is a Passover song whose title means roughly “it would have been enough.” Its verses thank God for successive blessings to the Israelites, such as the manna and the Torah.
• Peoples
  • Edomites — The Edomites were the biblical people associated with Esau, whose red complexion and hairy appearance are part of the usual identification. Their ancestry in Genesis centers on the birthright sold for lentil stew and on the rivalry between Esau and Jacob.

• Samaritanism — Samaritanism is the religion of the Samaritan people, who reject the Jerusalem temple tradition and revere Mount Gerizim as the proper holy site. It is the background for Jesus’s parable of the Good Samaritan.

• Samaritans — The Samaritans are a small ethnoreligious community centered on Mount Gerizim, where they preserve an ancient Israelite tradition distinct from rabbinic Judaism. They have a high priest at Nablus, their own version of the Book of Joshua, and a messianic figure called the Taheb. Their tradition is associated with the Good Samaritan parable and the woman at the well, and they claim descent from Ephraim and Manasseh. Surviving communities are in Holon and Kiryat Luza.
  • Mount Gerizim — Mount Gerizim is the holy mountain of the Samaritans near Nablus, opposite Mount Ebal. Clues often mention blessings and curses in Deuteronomy, the Samaritan Passover sacrifice, and traditions identifying it with Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac.
• Aaron — He is the brother of Moses and Miriam, the biblical elder brother of Moses, and the first High Priest of Israel/Israelites. He helps make the Golden Calf, wields the staff that turns into a serpent, and his rod later buds almonds. He dies on Mount Hor after his garments pass to his son Eleazar; his sons include Eleazar and Ithamar.
  • Aaron’s Rod — Aaron’s Rod is the biblical staff associated with Moses’s brother Aaron, the one that blossomed to prove the legitimacy of Levi’s priesthood. In Exodus it also turns into a serpent, making it a recurring sign of divine authority and miracle-working.
• Abrahamic religions
  • Abraham — Abraham is a biblical patriarch and in Islamic tradition Ibrahim, revered as the father of Isaac and Ishmael. He left Mesopotamia/Ur for Canaan, covenanted with God, and is linked to Sarah and Hagar, the Kaaba, the Hajj rites, and the pilgrimage stations at Safa and Marwa. Genesis stories include his rescue of Lot from Chedorlaomer’s coalition with 318 men, the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, and the near-sacrifice of Isaac on Mount Moriah; Islamic tradition instead emphasizes the sacrifice of his son Ishmael. Later traditions also describe him destroying his father’s idols, surviving a fire set by Nimrod, arguing about resurrection, and receiving the title friend of God, with a namesake prayer station called the maqam.

    • Ibrahim or Abraham — Ibrahim, or Abraham, is the patriarch revered in Islam and Judaism. The Qur’an associates him with miraculous signs, including the birds that reassembled after he called them and the command to sacrifice his son, commemorated in Eid al-Adha.

    • Isaac and Ishmael — Isaac and Ishmael are the sons of Abraham named in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions. Their rivalry and differing lineages are central to later scriptural genealogies and interpretations of Abraham’s family.

    • Keturah — Keturah is the woman Abraham married after Sarah’s death, and she bore him several children including Midian. In Genesis, she appears as one of Abraham’s later wives or concubines, and later traditions connect her descendants with the Midianites.

    • Terah — Terah is the father of Abraham and the ancestor named in Genesis as the head of the family that left Ur for Canaan. Some clues focus on his role as the father of Abram, Nahor, and Haran, and on the family relationship that makes Abraham and Sarah related through him.

  • covenants — Covenants are solemn religious agreements, especially in biblical contexts between God and a people or individual. Clues often mention the New Covenant, the Mosaic Covenant, Abraham, and the Ark of the Covenant.

  • Gabriel — The archangel of revelation in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. In Christian tradition he announces the births of Jesus to Mary and John the Baptist to Zechariah and appears in Luke and Daniel; in Islam, as Jibril/Jibreel, he delivers the Qur’an to Muhammad, including the first command to “Read!” in the Cave of Hira, and is associated with the Night Journey, al-Buraq, and the purifying of Muhammad’s heart.

  • Judaism — The Abrahamic faith of the Jewish people. Its written tradition includes the Torah, the Prophets, and the Talmud, formed from the Mishnah and Gemara; its law includes tractates such as Pe’ah. Historical Jewish communities are noted in places such as Khazaria, Kaifeng, Ethiopia, medieval North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and Iberia, and its medieval and early modern history often centers on figures such as Maimonides and Spinoza.
    • aliyah — Aliyah is the Jewish term for immigration to Israel, especially in Zionist contexts. The word also refers to being called up to read from the Torah, and it literally means “ascent.”
      • immigrating to Israel — Aliyah is the immigration of Jews to Israel, understood as a return to the ancestral homeland. Zionist movements and programs such as the Law of Return and Operation Magic Carpet encouraged or enabled this migration.
    • Amulets
      • hamsa — The hamsa is a palm-shaped amulet used across North Africa and the Middle East to ward off the evil eye, often with an eye placed in the palm. It is especially common among Sephardic Jews and appears in holiday customs such as Mimouna.
    • Apocrypha and pseudepigrapha
      • Book of Enoch — The Book of Enoch is an apocryphal Jewish text associated with the fall of the Watchers, the origins of the Nephilim, and a visionary ascent guided by Uriel. It also includes calendrical and apocalyptic material, including a 364-day calendar and a division of history into weeks.
        • Enoch — Enoch is the biblical patriarch who walked with God and was taken up without dying. He is associated with apocalyptic and pseudepigraphal traditions such as 1 Enoch, the Watchers, and later identifications with Idris and Metatron.
    • Ashkenazim and Sephardim
      • Sephardim and Ashkenazim — Sephardim and Ashkenazim are the two major medieval Jewish cultural traditions that developed after the rise of Islam. The Sephardim were centered in Spain, while the Ashkenazim were centered in France and Germany.

    • Babylonian Talmud — The Babylonian Talmud, also called Talmud Bavli or Shas, is the central compilation of the Mishnah and Gemara in Jewish rabbinic tradition. Rashi’s commentary is a standard clue for this text, which is sometimes contrasted with the Jerusalem Talmud.

    • being Jewish — This ethno-religious identity is central to debates over matrilineal descent and Reform Judaism’s recognition of patrilineal claims. It is also the target of Wagner’s anti-Jewish writing and appears in stories about characters barred from work for being Jewish.

    • Beta Israel — Beta Israel is the Jewish community of Ethiopia, also called Ethiopian Jews, Falashas, or Falasha. The group is traditionally linked to the tribe of Dan and is associated with legends about Queen Yodit, the Kingdom of Semien, and descent from the line of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Their traditions include Sabbath observance, circumcision, dietary restrictions, Sigd, Ge’ez religious texts and earlier use of Ge’ez and related languages, and leaders called kessim. They were airlifted to Israel in Operations Moses and Solomon and are also linked to the Falash Mura and a history of persecution and migration.

    • Brit milah
      • bris — A bris, or brit milah, is the Jewish ritual circumcision performed on an infant boy on the eighth day after birth. The person who holds the child during the ceremony is called the sandek.
    • candle lighting
      • lighting a candle — Lighting a candle is the ritual action associated with Shabbat candles, Havdalah, yahrzeit observance, and the Hanukkah menorah. In Jewish practice it marks Sabbath remembrance and is often done with the shamash during Hanukkah.
    • Capital punishment
      • stoning — Stoning, also called lapidation, is a method of execution in which a crowd throws rocks at a condemned person. It appears in stories such as Shirley Jackson’s “The Lottery,” and it is also the biblical manner of death associated with Saint Stephen.
    • Coming-of-age rituals
      • bar mitzvah or bat mitzvah — A Jewish coming-of-age ceremony at which a child becomes religiously accountable as an adult. The celebrant typically reads from the Torah, may be called for an aliyah, and stands on the bimah for synagogue participation; the ceremony often includes the haftarah reading and may involve tefillin. It is usually held at about age 13 for boys and 12 or 13 for girls, and modern gender-neutral forms include b mitzvah.
    • covenant rituals
      • circumcision — This ritual removes a male foreskin and marks Abraham’s covenant in Judaism, where it is usually performed by a mohel. It also appears in biblical stories involving Zipporah and in traditions from Islam and some Christian communities.
    • death and mourning
      • death or dying — In Judaism, this topic is the event of death, which is marked by the yahrzeit anniversary and followed by mourning rites such as sitting shiva. After death, taharah prepares the body for burial and kaddish may be recited by mourners.
    • Denominations
      • Orthodox Judaism — Orthodox Judaism is the branch of Judaism that most strictly follows the Torah and Talmudic law. Hasidic and Haredi communities belong within this broader tradition, which is more observant than Conservative or Reform Judaism.

        • Rabbi Shmuley Boteach — Rabbi Shmuley Boteach is an Orthodox rabbi and author known for books such as Kosher Sex and Dating Secrets of the Ten Commandments. He also founded the L’Chaim Society and became a media personality through radio and television work.

        • The Vilna Gaon — The Vilna Gaon was the 18th-century Lithuanian Jewish scholar whose halakhic rulings shaped modern Orthodox Judaism. He opposed the rise of Hasidism and is remembered for his intense ascetic study habits.

    • Descent and status
      • matrilineality — Matrilineality is descent or Jewish status traced through the mother’s line rather than the father’s. The clues tie it to Rabbinic Judaism, Karaite practice, and other kinship systems such as the Iroquois clan mother tradition.
    • Dietary laws
      • Kashrut — Kashrut is the Jewish system of dietary law, or kosher laws, derived mainly from Leviticus and Deuteronomy. It governs what may be eaten and how food is prepared, including the separation of meat and dairy, ritual slaughter by shechita, and the use of a mashgiach in supervised preparation. It permits only certain animals and fish, forbids items such as pork and shellfish, and treats foods such as chametz and treif as forbidden. Kosher foods are often marked with a hechsher symbol on packaging, and the system divides foods into meat, dairy, and pareve/parve.

        • hechsher — A hechsher is a kosher certification mark placed on packaged foods to indicate that they meet dietary law requirements. The word can also appear in quizbowl as the Hebrew term itself, though it is easy to confuse with the Swedish economist Eli Heckscher.

        • shochet — A shochet is a trained kosher slaughterer who performs ritual slaughter in accordance with Jewish dietary law. The role is central to preparing meat that is acceptable under kashrut and is analogous to halal slaughter practices in other traditions.

        • terefah — Terefah refers to food that is not permitted under kashrut. Examples include meat from non-kosher animals and the combination of meat with dairy.

        • treif — Treif is the Jewish term for food that is not kosher. It marks foods that violate kashrut, the dietary laws of Judaism.

    • Elul — Elul is the final month of the Hebrew calendar, immediately before Tishrei and the High Holy Days. It is the month when the shofar is blown nearly daily in preparation for Rosh Hashanah.

    • Ethnic groups
      • Ashkenazi Jews — The major Jewish population historically associated with the Rhineland and later eastern Europe; their traditional vernacular is Yiddish, and the term distinguishes them from Sephardic Jews. They are often noted for the Ashkenazi use of Moses Isserles’s glosses on the Shulchan Aruch and for relatively high carrier or incidence rates of inherited disorders including Tay-Sachs, Fanconi anemia, Niemann-Pick disease, Canavan disease, and Bloom syndrome. They make up a large share of the world’s Jewish population today.
    • fast days — Fast days in Judaism are ta’anit observances marked by abstaining from food. They include major commemorations such as Tisha B’Av and Yom Kippur, as well as minor fasts like the Seventeenth of Tammuz and the Tenth of Tevet.
      • Seventeenth of Tammuz — The Seventeenth of Tammuz is a Jewish fast day that begins the Three Weeks of mourning and commemorates the breach of Jerusalem’s walls. Tradition also links it to the breaking of the tablets and the ending of the daily tamid offering.
    • Fasts
      • Fast of Esther — The Fast of Esther is the Jewish fast observed just before Purim. It commemorates Esther’s fast before she pleaded with King Ahasuerus to save her people.
    • Festivals

      • Shavuot — Shavuot is the Jewish Festival of Weeks, observed seven weeks, or fifty days, after Passover at the end of the Omer, in the month of Sivan. It commemorates the giving of the Torah, including the Ten Commandments, at Mount Sinai and was originally tied to the grain or wheat harvest and the first fruits offering in the Temple. Traditional customs include all-night Torah study, eating dairy foods, and reading the Book of Ruth.

      • Sukkot — Sukkot is the Jewish harvest festival that recalls the Israelites’ wilderness wandering. It begins on the fifteenth day of Tishri and is observed with booths called sukkot, the four species, and rituals involving the lulav and etrog. It is marked by Hallel and the musaf service, and its seventh day is Hoshana Rabbah.

        • etrog — An etrog is the citron used in the Jewish festival of Sukkot as one of the Four Species, alongside the lulav, hadasim, and aravot. It is valued when it retains its pitam, the small tip at the end of the fruit.

        • Hoshana Rabbah — Hoshana Rabbah is the seventh day of Sukkot, traditionally marked by beating willow branches. It is the final day of the prayer for Sukkot known for the closing of judgment.

        • lulav and etrog — Lulav and etrog are the two main ritual objects waved during Sukkot, the Jewish harvest festival. The lulav is the palm branch bundle, while the etrog is the citron.

        • the four species — The four species are the ritual plants used on Sukkot, especially the lulav and etrog, which are waved together in synagogue practice. They are central to the festival’s temple-origin ritual and remain a major observance in Orthodox and Conservative communities.

    • firstborn

      • firstborn son — The firstborn son had special ritual status in Judaism, including redemption through pidyon haben and the Passover protection of the firstborn in Egypt. This status was later associated with priestly privilege before being transferred to the Levites after the Golden Calf.

      • firstborn sons — Firstborn sons have special prominence in Judaism, including the ritual of pidyon haben and the Passover rescue of the Israelite firstborn in Egypt. In inheritance law, primogeniture traditionally favored the eldest son over younger siblings.

    • Haggadah — The Jewish text read at the Passover Seder, where it orders the meal and recounts the Exodus story. It includes the Four Questions, Dayenu, Chad Gadya, and instructions for retelling the Exodus. In another Jewish-literary sense, haggadah refers to the nonlegal narrative material of the Midrash, including legends and parables.

    • Hair customs
      • Payot — Payot are the long sidelocks worn by many Hasidic Jewish men to follow the biblical prohibition on shaving the corners of the head.

    • Halakha and Aggadah — Halakha refers to the legal component of Jewish tradition, covering commandments, rabbinic rulings, and practical religious observance. In contrast, aggadah is the non-legal interpretive material, including stories, folklore, and biographical teaching.

    • Haredim — Haredim are ultra-Orthodox Jews who live in tightly observant communities and often follow their rebbes’ political guidance. They are prominent in places such as Lakewood, New Jersey, and New Square, New York, and many in the community are exempt from Israeli military service.

    • Haskalah — The Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, was an 18th- and 19th-century movement that encouraged secular learning, modern education, and Jewish engagement with European culture while reducing rabbinic authority. Its most famous advocate was Moses Mendelssohn, and its adherents were called maskilim. In Germany, it helped pave the way for Reform and Conservative Judaism.

    • Hebrew Bible translations
      • the Septuagint — The Septuagint is the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible traditionally associated with seventy or seventy-two translators for Ptolemy II Philadelphus. It was widely used in the early Christian world and survives in major codices such as Vaticanus and Sinaiticus.
    • Hebrew calendar — This lunisolar calendar is used in Judaism and counts years from a traditional creation date, with months that can be described as deficient, regular, complete, or even intercalary. Its modern month names were adopted during the Babylonian Exile, and it is the system used to mark holidays such as Rosh Chodesh.

      • Adar — Adar is the last month of the Hebrew calendar, with a second Adar added in leap years. Purim falls during this month, and Jewish tradition often associates it with the death and birth of Moses.

      • Adar Sheni — Adar Sheni, or Second Adar, is the extra month inserted in leap years of the Hebrew calendar. Its placement keeps Purim aligned with the calendar cycle.

      • Months

        • Av — Av is the Hebrew month that follows Tammuz and contains Tisha B’Av, the fast day mourning the destruction of the Temples in Jerusalem. It also includes Tu B’Av, the day of love, and other observances such as the end of the Between the Straits period.

        • Nisan — Nisan is a month of the Hebrew calendar, and Passover begins on its 14th day. It is the first ecclesiastical month and the seventh month in the civil calendar. Christian dating controversies such as the Quartodeciman dispute were tied to whether Easter was calculated from Nisan.

      • Tishrei — Tishrei is the first month of the Jewish calendar; in one numbering system it is also the first month of the Hebrew year. It contains the High Holidays, including Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, and Simchat Torah.
    • High Holy Days — The High Holy Days, also called the Days of Awe or Yamim Noraim, are the major Jewish holiday period beginning with Rosh Hashanah and ending with Yom Kippur. They mark the Ten Days of Repentance and the peak spiritual season of the Jewish liturgical year.

      • Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur — Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur are the Jewish High Holy Days most closely associated with the sounding of the shofar. These holidays frame the Days of Awe and are central to the penitential season in Judaism.

      • Yom Kippur — Yom Kippur is the Jewish Day of Atonement and the most solemn fast day in the calendar. It falls on the tenth of Tishri and concludes the Ten Days of Repentance or Penitence after Rosh Hashanah. The holiday is marked by fasting, confession, Kol Nidre at the opening evening, Ne’ilah at the close, and abstention from food and drink; older descriptions also mention Temple atonement rituals, the ritual scapegoat sent into the wilderness, and a priestly sacrifice for the whole community. Readings from Jonah and the preholiday custom of kapparot are also associated with the High Holy Day period.

        • Kapparot — Kapparot is the Jewish Yom Kippur atonement ritual in which a chicken is swung overhead and then slaughtered, with the meat often donated to charity. It may also be performed with money instead of a bird.

        • Kol Nidre — An Aramaic declaration recited at the start of Yom Kippur evening services, whose name means “all vows.” It annuls vows and oaths for the coming year and is famous in musical settings, including Max Bruch’s Kol Nidrei for cello and orchestra based on Hebrew melodies.

        • Ne’ila — Ne’ila is the concluding prayer service of Yom Kippur, marking the closing of the day’s repentance liturgy. Its clues include the recitation of the Shema and the blowing of the shofar, imagery tied to the closing of the gates of prayer.

        • Ne’ilah — Ne’ilah is the closing service of Yom Kippur, recited at the end of the day’s prayers as the gates of heaven close. It includes the final Amidah and ends with the last shofar blast.

        • scapegoat — A scapegoat is the creature or symbolic figure driven into the wilderness to bear communal sins, especially in the Levitical Day of Atonement ritual. Clues may mention Azazel, a red thread, or later comparative myth treatments by James Frazer.

    • Holidays
      • Simchat Torah — Simchat Torah is the Jewish holiday that marks the completion and restarting of the annual Torah reading cycle. It is celebrated with dancing, processions of the Torah scrolls, and seven circuits around the synagogue, usually right after Sukkot.
    • Holocaust remembrance
      • Yom Hashoah — The Jewish Holocaust remembrance day observed on the 27th of Nisan. It is marked in Israel and elsewhere with sirens, moments of silence, and commemorations such as the March of the Living. It is observed around the anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising and includes a nationwide moment of silence for Holocaust victims.
    • Holy sites
      • Western Wall — The Western Wall is the surviving western retaining wall of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem and a remnant of the Second Temple complex. It is one of Judaism’s holiest and most important pilgrimage sites, known for prayer notes placed in its stones. It is also called the Wailing Wall, Kotel, HaKotel HaMa’aravi, and Ha’it al-Buraaq Wall.
    • Institutions
      • yeshiva — A yeshiva is a Jewish institution devoted to the study of Torah and Talmud. The term can refer to traditional academies, including modern institutions such as Yeshiva University.
    • Israeli holidays
      • Yom Ha’Atzma’ut — Yom Ha’Atzma’ut is Israeli Independence Day, observed on 5 Iyar to commemorate the founding of Israel in 1948. It is associated with the day after Yom HaZikaron and with practices such as Hallel and the International Bible Contest.

    • Jewish — Jewish refers to the people and religion associated with Judaism. In literature and art clues, it can point to Jewish characters, Jewish themes, or works with titles such as The Jew of Malta and The Jewish Bride.

    • Jewish denominations

      • Conservative Judaism — Conservative Judaism is the Jewish movement that developed as a middle path between Reform and Orthodox Judaism. It is associated with Zacharias Frankel, the Jewish Theological Seminary, and the historical school of Jewish scholarship. In the United States, the movement grew in response to the trefa banquet controversy and later spread through institutions such as the Schechter day schools. More liberal branches of Judaism, including Reconstructionism, split from this denomination.

      • Karaite Judaism — A Jewish denomination or movement that rejects the Oral Torah, rabbinic interpretation, and the Talmud, relying on the written Tanakh/Torah alone and reading it with strict literalism. The name comes from the Hebrew for “readers.” Its history is linked to Anan ben David, and later communities included groups in Crimea, where some adherents used claims of Khazar descent for survival, as well as a notable American population near Daly City, California.

        • Karaites — The Karaites are a Jewish community historically associated with rejection of rabbinic tradition and with origins in the medieval Near East. They are especially identified with Lithuania and the Crimea, and many speak a Turkic language such as Karaim while regarding Hebrew as sacred.
    • Jewish ethnic divisions
      • Sephardic Jews — Sephardic Jews are Jews of Iberian descent, especially the communities descended from Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal in the late 15th century, including the 1492 expulsion under the Alhambra Decree. They are associated with Ladino, with later settlements across the Ottoman Empire, North Africa, and the Mediterranean, and with Spanish or Portuguese Jewish communities and their distinct ritual traditions. Some were forced to convert and became conversos or marranos, continuing Jewish practice in secret.
    • Jewish fast days
      • Tisha b’Av — Tisha b’Av is the Jewish fast day of mourning on the ninth day of Av, marked by reading Lamentations and the kinnot. It commemorates the destructions of the First and Second Temples and other national calamities in Jewish history, including the expulsion from Spain, and is observed with shiva-like restrictions such as sitting low and avoiding enjoyable activities. It is a sundown-to-sundown fast and concludes the Three Weeks of mourning; if it would fall on Shabbat, it can be delayed.
    • Jewish folklore
      • dybbuks — Dybbuks are possessing spirits in Jewish folklore, usually described as dead souls that cling to and inhabit the living. The clues mention exorcism by rabbis, the shem, and a wedding play built around one such spirit.
    • Jewish music
      • Hava Nagila — “Hava Nagila” is a Hebrew folk song meaning “Let us rejoice,” and it is widely used at Jewish celebrations. Adapted from a Hasidic nigun, it is often performed in klezmer settings and at weddings, bar mitzvahs, and similar festivities.
    • Jewish organizations

      • B’nai B’rith — B’nai B’rith is a Jewish fraternal and service organization whose name means “Sons of the Covenant.” It is especially associated with the Anti-Defamation League and with educational and humanitarian work.

      • Hadassah — Hadassah is the Hebrew name of Esther and the name of a major Jewish women’s organization founded by Henrietta Szold. The group’s name has also drawn political protest because of its Zionist associations.

    • Jewish prayer books
      • machzor — A machzor is the specialized Jewish prayer book used for the High Holy Days, especially Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. It adapts the siddur for the liturgy of those holy days and replaces the ordinary prayer book on those occasions. It includes liturgy such as Unetaneh Tokef and, in modern versions, prayers like Kol Nidre and confessional acrostics.
    • Jewish prayers

      • Amidah — The Amidah is the central standing prayer of Judaism, recited three times daily and traditionally facing Jerusalem. It is sometimes called the Eighteen even though it contains nineteen blessings, and its Shabbat form is shortened while a Mussaf version is added on holy days.

      • hallel — Hallel is the Jewish prayer consisting of Psalms 113 through 118, recited on major holidays and Rosh Chodesh. The term also refers to the Great Hallel, especially Psalm 136, whose repeated refrain praises divine mercy.

    • Jewish sects
      • The Essenes — The Essenes were an ascetic Jewish sect associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls and communal desert life. They emphasized purity, strict Sabbath observance, and white garments, and ancient writers such as Josephus and Philo describe them.

    • kiddush — Kiddush is the Hebrew blessing recited over wine or grape juice on the Sabbath and at other festive occasions. It is commonly said at the first Shabbat meal, with challah covered while the blessing is recited.

    • Kippah — A small brimless skullcap or round head covering worn by Jewish men as a sign of reverence before God. It is especially associated with Orthodox observance, where it may be worn at all times; other Jews may wear it during prayer, services, or at synagogues and the Western Wall. The Talmud links its use to Shabbat 156b.

    • law

      • 613 — In Judaism, the mitzvot are traditionally counted as 613 commandments. The number is a standard clue in questions about Jewish law, including kashrut and bar or bat mitzvah obligations.

      • Halakah — Halakah is the legal body of Jewish law found in rabbinic literature and the Talmud. It refers to binding legal decisions and norms derived from scripture and later interpretation. It is built from the Torah, Talmud, rabbinic interpretation, and later custom, and governs religious practice in areas such as kashrut and the observance of holidays.

    • Levites — The Levites were the Israelite tribe descended from Levi and associated with priestly service. They carried the Tabernacle, were linked to the kohanim, and are exempt from the Pidyon HaBen rite.
      • Levi — Levi is the third son of Jacob and Leah, ancestor of the priestly Levites who were set apart for service in Israel. His descendants received priestly duties rather than a normal tribal allotment, making the name central to Israelite religion and biblical genealogy.
    • life cycle rituals
      • bat mitzvah — A bat mitzvah is the Jewish coming-of-age ceremony for a girl, usually at age twelve in Reform practice. It involves reading from the Torah and is often followed by celebration and dancing, while the parallel bar mitzvah is for boys.
    • Marriage law
      • Levirate marriage — Levirate marriage is the practice in which a man marries his dead brother’s childless widow, a duty known in Judaism as yibbum. In the Bible, it is associated with Onan, Ruth and Boaz, and the alternative rite of halitzah. The practice appears in Jewish law as a way of preserving a deceased brother’s line.
    • Messianic Judaism
      • Jews for Jesus — Jews for Jesus is a messianic evangelical group founded in 1973 by Moishe Rosen, though the name was already circulating from an earlier San Francisco brainstorming session. The organization is known for trying to persuade Jews to accept Jesus as the Messiah.

    • mikve or miqvah — A mikveh is a Jewish ritual bath used for purification after conditions such as menstruation, childbirth, or contact with death. Rabbinic law specifies that it must contain naturally gathered water and meet detailed construction requirements.

    • minyan — A minyan is the quorum of ten Jews required for communal or public prayer and certain other religious observances in Judaism. In many Orthodox contexts this means ten adult men, while in Conservative and Reform practice women may count toward the quorum.

    • mitzvah — A mitzvah is a commandment in Judaism, one of the 613 obligations traditionally counted in halakha and compiled by Maimonides. The word can also mean a good deed or act of kindness, and it appears in rites of passage such as bar mitzvah and bat mitzvah; specific practices like reciting the Shema are also treated as mitzvot.

    • months of the Hebrew calendar
      • Kislev — Kislev is a month in the Jewish calendar. Hanukkah begins on the 25th day of Kislev, and the month is also associated with the traditional end date of Noah’s flood.

    • mourners’ kaddish — Mourners’ kaddish is the Aramaic Jewish prayer for the dead, opening with praise of God’s great name. It originated as a concluding prayer after study or sermons and later became closely associated with mourning and memorial observance.

    • Mourning practices

      • Aninut — In Jewish law, this term refers to the mourning period between death and burial.

      • keriah — Keriah is the Jewish mourning ritual in which mourners tear their clothing after the death of a close relative. It is performed standing as an expression of grief during the funeral period.

      • Yahrzeit — Yahrzeit is the Jewish observance marking the anniversary of a person’s death, usually kept with candles and the recitation of mourner’s Kaddish. It is also called yom hillula in some contexts and is often discussed in connection with Lag BaOmer and memorial customs for parents.

    • Nazirites — Nazirites were Israelites under a vow that forbade cutting their hair and drinking wine or eating grapes. Samson is the best-known Nazirite, and his hair marks his status under the Numbers vow.

    • Noah’s sons
      • Japheth and Ham — Japheth and Ham were two of Noah’s sons. The pair are identified in genealogy clues as the ancestors of the Gentiles and the Egyptians, respectively.
    • Omer period
      • Lag ba-Omer — Lag ba-Omer is the thirty-third day of the Omer count, falling on 18 Iyar between Passover and Shavuot, and it breaks the semi-mourning period. It is associated with bonfires and torches, haircuts and upsherin, bows and arrows, charity such as chai rotel, and pilgrimages to the tomb of Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Some traditions link it to the end of a plague among Rabbi Akiva’s students and to the death of Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai.
    • Passover — Passover is the Jewish spring festival commemorating the Exodus from Egypt. It is observed in Nisan with seder meals, the Haggadah, matzah, the Four Questions, and the retelling of the plagues; customs include removing chametz from the home. It is also one of the three pilgrimage festivals and is traditionally associated with the Last Supper.

      • afikomen — The afikomen is the hidden piece of matzah used in the Passover Seder, usually concealed for children to find near the end of the meal.

      • chametz — Chametz is leavened grain food prohibited during Passover, including wheat, barley, and spelt products. Jewish practice includes searching for and burning chametz before Passover, and some communities temporarily sell it in a mechirah.

      • Kosher for Passover — Kosher for Passover describes foods permitted during Pesach, when chametz is forbidden and the seder is held. Ashkenazi practice often excludes kitniyot, and some packaged foods are marked with a P by the hechsher to show that they meet this standard.

      • lamb’s blood — Lamb’s blood is the substance the Israelites were told to place on their doorposts before the final plague in Egypt. That act explains the name Passover, since the Angel of Death passed over the marked houses.

      • matzo — Matzo is the unleavened flatbread eaten during Passover to commemorate the Israelites’ hasty departure from Egypt and the Exodus. It is central to the Seder: three matzot are set out, a hidden piece called the afikoman is later searched for, and it is used in the Haggadah’s Hillel sandwich with bitter herbs. Ashkenazi and Sephardic traditions differ on the texture and permitted ingredients for some varieties.

      • Seder — The seder is the ritual Jewish meal held on the first night of Passover that retells the Exodus from Egypt. It is guided by the Haggadah and includes the Four Questions, symbolic foods such as matzah and bitter herbs, cups of wine, the eating of the afikoman near the end of the meal, and concluding songs. In the traditional form, the youngest participant asks why this night is different from all other nights, and the meal ends with the wish “Next year in Jerusalem!” A Tu BiShvat seder is a related form that emphasizes fruits and symbolic readings.
        • afikoman — The afikoman is the piece of matzah hidden during the Passover seder and eaten last as the meal’s dessert. Children often search for it near the end of the seder, and it is central to the ritual sequence. It represents the substituted matzah portion eaten during tzafun and may be ransomed or hidden for children to find.
      • Seder phrases
        • Next year in Jerusalem — “Next year in Jerusalem” is the traditional conclusion to the Passover Seder. The phrase expresses hope to celebrate in Jerusalem and for the Jewish diaspora to be reunited.
    • Passover seder foods
      • Maror — Maror are the bitter herbs eaten at the Passover seder to recall the bitterness of slavery in Egypt. They are often eaten in Hillel’s sandwich with matzah during korech.
    • Prayer books
      • siddur — A siddur is a Jewish prayer book containing the standard liturgy used for daily and Sabbath worship. It commonly includes prayers such as the Shema and poems like Adon Olam, along with other devotional materials.
    • prayer services
      • Shacharit — Shacharit is the Jewish morning prayer service, often paired with Mussaf on Shabbat. It is the service during which tallit and tefillin are worn and includes the Kedushah expansion with biblical angelic visions.
    • Priestly offices
      • High Priest of Israel — The High Priest of Israel, or kohen gadol, was the chief priestly office of ancient Judaism and the only person permitted to enter the Holy of Holies. Tradition links the office to Aaron and to the Urim and Thummim carried on the breastplate of judgment.
    • purity laws
      • red heifer — The red heifer, or parah adumah, is the rare sacrificial cow in Jewish tradition whose ashes were mixed with water to purify those who had contact with death. Clues often stress that it must be unblemished and never yoked.

    • Rabbi — A Jewish religious teacher or leader, typically ordained through semikhah/semicha and often trained in a yeshiva. The term can also be used more broadly for a learned teacher in Judaism, and women may serve in the role in Reform Judaism. It is associated with halakha, synagogue leadership, and figures such as Isaac Luria, who also held the title.

    • Rabbinic literature

      • Aggadah — Aggadah is the non-legal, interpretive, and narrative portion of rabbinic literature, contrasted with Halakhah. It includes ethical teachings, theology, philosophy, and stories about rabbis rather than binding legal rulings.

      • Mishna — The Mishna is the oldest authoritative collection of Jewish oral law and forms part of the Talmud with the Gemara. Compiled under Judah ha-Nasi, it is divided into six orders and includes ethical material such as Pirkei Avot.

      • rabbis — Rabbis are Jewish religious leaders and legal interpreters who teach halakhah and often serve as synagogue authorities. The title is associated with figures from the Tannaitic and Amoraic eras, and it remains central to Jewish scholarship and commentary.

        • Judah Loew ben Bezalel — Judah Loew ben Bezalel, the Maharal of Prague, was a sixteenth-century rabbi and Talmudic scholar linked in legend to the creation of a protective golem. He also wrote Gur Aryeh, a Torah commentary that later influenced Chabad thought.

        • Rabbi Akiva — Second-century rabbinic sage who began Torah study late in life and became one of Judaism’s greatest teachers. He is associated with foundational midrashic interpretation, the tradition that divine justice and mercy are both attributes of God, support for Bar Kokhba as the Messiah, and martyrdom under the Romans.

        • Rabbi Harold Kushner — Rabbi Harold Kushner is the American author and rabbi best known for Why Bad Things Happen to Good People. He also wrote Who Needs God, and his work reflects on suffering, faith, and the limits of religious consolation.

        • Vilna Gaon — The Vilna Gaon was the 18th-century Lithuanian rabbi Elijah ben Solomon Zalman, famed for his scholarship and for extensive corrections to the Talmud. He opposed Hasidic Judaism, and his followers became known as the Mitnagdim, or opponents.

    • Rabbinic sages

      • Gamaliel — Gamaliel was a Pharisaic teacher of Paul in Acts and a revered Jewish sage in the Mishnah. He is remembered as the grandson of Hillel and as a former president of the Sanhedrin.

      • Simeon bar Yochai — Simeon bar Yochai, also called Rashbi, is a rabbinic sage traditionally credited with the Zohar. He is associated with the legend of studying Torah in a cave with his son, and his death is commemorated on Lag B’Omer with bonfires and bows.

    • Reading the Torah — The Jewish practice of chanting or reciting portions of the Pentateuch in synagogue, organized by parashot and divided into aliyot. It often uses cantillation, involves aliyot to the bimah, and is central to Shabbat worship and bar mitzvah services; the last reader is called the maftir.
      • reading from the Torah — Reading from the Torah is the synagogue practice of chanting passages from the Torah scroll, usually on a weekly parashah. It is performed on the bimah with a yad, and the reader may be called up for an aliyah.
    • Reconstructionist Judaism — Reconstructionist Judaism is a modern liberal Jewish movement founded on Mordecai Kaplan’s idea of Judaism as an evolving civilization. It grew out of Conservative Judaism and emphasizes Jewish civilization, secular ethics, adapting practice to modern life, a nonliteral view of God, and rejection of chosenness. Its prayer book is Kol Haneshama.
      • Mordecai Kaplan — Mordecai Kaplan was the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism and one of the major architects of modern American Jewish thought. He also emphasized women’s equality in Jewish life and helped bring about the first public bat mitzvah in the United States for his daughter Judith.
    • Reform Judaism — Reform Judaism is the modernist Jewish movement associated with Abraham Geiger, Isaac Mayer Wise, and the Pittsburgh Platform. It relaxed traditional ritual observance, emphasized progressive revelation, and became the largest denomination of Judaism in the United States.
      • Wise — Wise is a surname associated with major figures in American Reform Judaism, especially Isaac Mayer Wise and Stephen S. Wise. Isaac Wise founded Hebrew Union College, while Stephen Wise led the American Jewish Congress and the Free Synagogue movement in New York.
    • Religious practice
      • Kavanah — Kavanah is a Jewish term for inward devotion or intention, especially the focused spiritual mindset with which a religious act is performed. In Hasidic contexts, it emphasizes the meaning and concentration behind good deeds and prayer.
    • Ritual circumcision
      • mohel — A mohel is the Jewish ritual circumciser who performs brit milah on infant boys. In some communities the mohel also performs metzitzah b’peh, the suction step that draws blood from the wound.
    • Ritual clothing
      • tzitzit — Tzitzit are the ritual fringes attached to the corners of a Jewish prayer shawl or other four-cornered garments. They are traditionally knotted and worn as a reminder of the commandments, sometimes with a thread dyed tekhelet.
    • Ritual objects

      • candle — A candle is the basic light source used in Hanukkah rituals, where the shamash lights the others on the menorah. It also appears in Havdalah, where braided candles are blessed to mark the end of the Sabbath. In poetry, candles can symbolize brief, intense life, as in Edna St. Vincent Millay’s “First Fig,” where a candle burns at both ends.

      • doorposts — Doorposts are the upright supports of a doorway, and Jewish clues often involve mezuzot attached to them. They also appear in Passover and Epiphany traditions, where they may be marked or inscribed with religious symbols and texts.

      • mezuzah — A small case affixed to the doorposts of Jewish homes, usually set at a slight diagonal, containing parchment inscribed with verses from the Shema and Deuteronomy. It is often kissed on entry, and the parchment commonly bears the word Shaddai. The name is tied to the commandment to inscribe God’s words on the doorframes of one’s house.

      • scrolls — Scrolls are written parchments or paper rolls used for texts that are read or displayed in a rolled format. In Jewish contexts they include Torah scrolls and related ritual objects such as megillot, mezuzot, and tefillin.

      • tefillin — Tefillin are the black leather boxes containing Torah passages that observant Jewish men attach to the arm and forehead during morning prayer. Their straps and boxes are associated with the commandment of totafot, and they are a standard element of weekday religious practice.

    • Ritual practices
      • blowing the shofar — Blowing the shofar is the Jewish ritual of sounding a ram’s horn during the Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur services. Its common patterns include tekiah, shevarim, and teruah, and the performer is called a ba’al tokeah.
    • ritual purity
      • niddah — Niddah is the Jewish term for a woman in the menstrual state of ritual impurity and for the period of separation associated with it. The condition is resolved through purification practices such as immersion in a mikveh.

    • ritual slaughter — Ritual slaughter is the religiously prescribed killing of an animal for food, including shechita in Judaism and dhabihah in Islam. Its performance is tied to invocations of God and to rules about the proper cutting of the throat and draining of blood.

    • ritual wine
      • Wine — Wine is the alcoholic drink of grapes and a ritual beverage in Jewish practice, especially for kiddush, havdalah, and the Passover seder. Kosher and mevushal forms are used in these rites. It is also associated with Greek and Roman religion, especially Dionysus, bacchanals, and maenads, and can be treated as an entheogen.
    • Sabbateanism
      • Jacob Frank — Jacob Frank was an eighteenth-century Polish Jewish mystic and false messiah who founded a syncretic antinomian movement after following Sabbatai Zevi. His followers embraced mass conversion, ritualized claims of hidden holiness, and a cultic theology centered on the “path to Esau.”
    • Sabbath Law
      • eruv — An eruv is a symbolic halakhic enclosure that lets Orthodox Jews carry objects in public on Shabbat. It is usually marked by poles, wires, or other boundary markers that convert an area into a shared domain for carrying.
    • Sacred places
      • Zion — Zion is the biblical hill and holy place associated with Jerusalem, Israel, and the promised land in Jewish and Christian tradition. It also appears in Rastafarianism and in names for African-initiated churches such as Zionist movements in southern Africa.
    • Second Temple sects
      • Sadducees — The Sadducees were a Hellenized Jewish priestly sect centered on the Temple in Jerusalem. They rejected oral law, resurrection, and angels, and were long rivals of the Pharisees. Their political influence peaked under the Hasmoneans and ended after the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 CE.
    • Sects

      • Pharisees — The Pharisees were a major ancient Jewish sect that upheld oral law and often clashed with the Sadducees and with Jesus in the gospels. They are also associated with Paul’s autobiographical reference to being one before his conversion.

      • The Pharisees — The Pharisees were a Jewish sect in the time of Jesus that emphasized the oral law and belief in an afterlife. They appear frequently in the Gospels and in Acts, where Paul identifies with them. They are often contrasted with the Sadducees.

    • Symbols
      • Star of David — The Star of David is the six-pointed Jewish symbol also called the Shield of David or Magen David. It appears on the flag of Israel and in Holocaust-era yellow badges, and it is used in Jewish, Zionist, and related ceremonial contexts.
    • Synagogue liturgy
      • haftarah — The haftarah is the prophetic reading from Nevi’im that follows the Torah portion in synagogue services. It is chanted with traditional cantillation and is also read by bar and bat mitzvah students in many ceremonies.
    • Synagogue officials
      • cantor — A cantor, or hazzan, leads the music and chanting of synagogue services. Clues often mention Reform Judaism, piyyutim, nusach hatefillah, and the role of singing prayers during a bar mitzvah ceremony.
    • Synagogue practice
      • Genizah — A genizah is a storage place in a synagogue for worn-out Hebrew writings and other texts containing the divine name. The Cairo Genizah is the famous medieval cache that preserved hundreds of thousands of manuscript fragments.

    • tallit — A tallit is a Jewish prayer shawl worn during prayer, especially in the morning and on Yom Kippur. It is often white with blue or black stripes and has fringes, or tzitzit, at the corners, along with an atarah collar that bears the blessing for putting it on. It is especially worn by Orthodox Jewish men and by rabbis and cantors, and it may also be used as a burial garment.

    • Tanakh books
      • The Book of Esther — The Book of Esther is the Tanakh text read on Purim, where Esther becomes queen and helps foil Haman’s plot against the Jews of Persia. Clues often mention Ahasuerus, Mordechai, Vashti, the gallows, and the Megillah.
    • Temple history
      • destruction of the Second Temple — The destruction of the Second Temple refers to Titus’s destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE. It is mourned on Tisha B’Av and associated with the surviving Western Wall.
    • Temples of Jerusalem

      • Second Temple of Jerusalem — The Second Temple of Jerusalem was the Jewish temple rebuilt after the Babylonian destruction of the first temple and later razed by Titus in 70 CE. It is tied to Hanukkah through the rededication by Judas Maccabaeus and to biblical prophecy in books such as Haggai.

      • Solomon’s Temple — Solomon’s Temple, or the First Temple, was the Jerusalem sanctuary built by Solomon, David’s son, and later destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II. Jeremiah’s Temple sermon in chapter 7 of his namesake book is set at its entrance.

    • the Jewish Messiah — In Judaism, the Messiah is the promised future redeemer who will restore Israel, rebuild the Temple, and gather the diaspora. Figures such as Sabbatai Zevi, Simon bar Kokhba, and later claimants were identified with this role.

    • the Menorah — The menorah is the seven-branched candelabrum associated with Judaism and the feast of Hanukkah. It is modeled on the sacred lamp of the tabernacle and often includes a shamash used to light the other candles.

    • The Omer — The Omer is the seven-week period counted from the second night of Passover to Shavuot. It is also marked by semi-mourning customs, including the Lag BaOmer celebration on its 33rd day.

    • the Temple in Jerusalem — The Temple in Jerusalem is the central Jewish sanctuary associated with Solomon’s original building, the Holy of Holies, and later Second Temple worship. It was the site of sacrifice before its destruction in 70 CE and figures in Christian and Jewish references to a future Third Temple.

    • Tikkun olam — Tikkun olam is a Hebrew phrase commonly rendered as “repairing the world,” and it is often invoked in modern Jewish ethics and youth movements. In Lurianic Kabbalah, the idea is tied to restoring divine harmony through human action, and older liturgical usage appears in the Aleinu prayer.

    • Titles and offices
      • Nasi — Nasi is a Hebrew title meaning prince or leader, especially associated with the head of the Sanhedrin. Judah ha-Nasi is the rabbinic figure who compiled the Mishnah.

    • Treyfah — Treyfah is the Hebrew term for food that is not kosher, especially food considered ritually unfit under Jewish dietary law.

    • Tu Bishvat — Tu Bishvat is the Jewish New Year for Trees, celebrated on the 15th of Shevat. It is a minor holiday associated with fruit-bearing trees and tree planting, often marked by planting trees, eating fruit, and holding a ceremonial seder with dried fruit and nuts; in modern practice it often has an environmentalist emphasis.

    • Tu B’Shvat — Tu B’Shvat is the Jewish New Year of the Trees, observed on the fifteenth day of Shvat. It became more prominent in the sixteenth century through Kabbalistic customs that included a ritual meal and celebrations with planted trees and fruit.

    • wilderness traditions
      • manna — Manna is the white, honey-tasting food God provided the Israelites in the wilderness. In Exodus it appears with quail, cannot be stored overnight, and is compared to hoarfrost or coriander seed.
    • Women in Judaism
      • Jewish women — Jewish women are a recurring focus of halakhic discussion about ritual purity, prayer, dress, and domestic obligations. Their clues include the bat mitzvah, tkhines, the sheitel, and exemptions from certain time-bound commandments.
    • Zealots
      • Zealot — A zealot was originally a member of an anti-Roman Jewish sect, including the sicarii, during the first century. The term later became the title of Reza Aslan’s biography of Jesus, Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth.
  • Satan
    • ha-Satan — ha-Satan is the adversarial figure of Jewish and Christian tradition, later associated with the Devil or Lucifer in broader Abrahamic lore. He appears in Job as the accuser and in later traditions as the tempter who opposes divine will.

• Absalom — Absalom was the rebellious son of David who avenged Tamar by killing Amnon and later led a revolt against his father. He dies when his hair catches in an oak tree, leaving him vulnerable to Joab’s attack.

• Eleazar — Eleazar is the name shared by Aaron’s son and several other biblical figures, including Moses’s son and the priestly successor of Aaron in Numbers. It is also used by later Jewish and medieval figures, making it a common biblical and post-biblical Hebrew name.

• Esther — Esther is the Jewish queen of Persia whose courage saves her people from Haman’s genocide plot. Her book in the Hebrew Bible leaves God unnamed, features Mordecai, Vashti, and Ahasuerus, and is commemorated at Purim.

• Ezra — Ezra the scribe-priest is the Jewish figure associated with the return from Babylonian exile, the rebuilding and reform of Jewish law, and the requirement to send away foreign wives. He is linked to the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, traditionally identified as the compiler of the Torah, and is also associated in later tradition with apocalyptic writings and with Uzair in Islamic tradition.

• Hannah — Hannah is the barren wife of Elkanah and the mother of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible. She prays for a son and vows to dedicate him as a Nazirite if her plea is answered; when her prayer is fulfilled, she dedicates Samuel to God’s service. Her prayer becomes a model hymn in Jewish tradition, and Samuel later becomes a major prophet and judge of Israel.

• Nehemiah — Nehemiah is the Hebrew Bible figure who served as cup-bearer and tirshatha under Artaxerxes I while organizing the rebuilding of Jerusalem’s walls. His book is paired with Ezra’s, and the figure is also associated with reforms against intermarriage and the restoration of the Jewish community after the exile.

• Rachel — Rachel is the biblical wife of Jacob and mother of Joseph and Benjamin, remembered for her rivalry with Leah and for the “voice heard in Ramah” passage associated with her mourning. In broader quizbowl usage, the name also points to several pop-culture and art figures, but the biblical matriarch is the central identification here.

• Rehoboam — Rehoboam was the son of Solomon and the king whose harsh taxation led the ten northern tribes to secede from the united monarchy of Israel. He remained ruler of Judah and Benjamin after the split, but his reign marked the end of the united kingdom.

• Tamar — Tamar is the name shared by several figures in the Bible, including Judah’s daughter-in-law who disguised herself to secure an heir and later bore Perez. The name also belongs to David’s daughter, who was raped by Amnon and then taken in by Absalom.

• Tribe of Benjamin — The Tribe of Benjamin was one of the tribes of Israel, associated with Saul, Ehud, and the Battle of Gibeah. Its territory lay between Ephraim and Judah and later joined Judah in the Kingdom of Judah.

• Cain and Abel — Cain and Abel are the sons of Adam and Eve whose sacrifice story ends with Cain’s murder of Abel. They often appear in literature and myth as a shorthand for sibling rivalry, especially in retellings by authors like Miguel de Unamuno and Jeffrey Archer.
  • Land of Nod — In biblical tradition, the Land of Nod is the place east of Eden where Cain fled and was exiled after killing Abel; it is also the setting of his wandering and offspring. Later English usage turned the phrase into a joking name for sleep or dreaming.
    • Nod — Nod is the land east of Eden where Cain was banished in Genesis. Cain later built a city there and named it after his son Enoch.
  • the murder of Abel — The murder of Abel is the first murder in the Bible, carried out by Cain after his sacrifice was rejected. Afterward Cain is condemned to wander in the land of Nod under a mark of divine protection.
• Giants
  • Og — A giant from Hebrew tradition and later Jewish legend, said to have survived the Flood. He is remembered as the king of Bashan who fought the Israelites at Edrei, and later lore also links him to Sarah, the wife of Abraham, in a story about forbidden desire.

• Gomer — Gomer is both the eldest son of Japheth in Genesis and the wife of Hosea in the prophetic book of Hosea. The latter is portrayed as an unfaithful woman whose children symbolize judgment on Israel.

• Amalekites — The Amalekites are an Old Testament people portrayed as perennial enemies of Israel. They are associated with King Agag, Saul and Samuel, and the command to destroy them after attacks on the Israelites in the wilderness.

• Jerusalem Temple

  • Holy of Holies — The Holy of Holies was the innermost sanctuary of the Tabernacle and later the Temple, entered only by the High Priest on Yom Kippur. It contained the Ark of the Covenant behind the veil, making it the most sacred chamber in Jewish ritual and biblical tradition.

  • Mount Moriah — Mount Moriah is the biblical mountain associated with Abraham’s aborted sacrifice of Isaac. It is also identified with the site of the two Jewish temples and with the Foundation Stone in Jerusalem.

• Jewish institutions
  • The Sanhedrin — The supreme Jewish council and court body in Jerusalem, remembered as a judicial and religious governing body. It is traditionally said to have had 71 members, met in Jerusalem’s Temple, and been headed by a nasi. It is associated with the appointment of the High Priest and with the trial of Jesus.
• Jewish folklore
  • dibbuk — A wandering disembodied human spirit from Jewish folklore that is said to enter the body of a living person as a place of refuge after death or because of former sins. It is also described as a malicious spirit that can possess a living person, and it became especially famous through S. Ansky’s play The Dybbuk.

• Jezreel — Jezreel is a biblical place-name associated with the valley of bloodshed, the city where Naboth lived, and the site tied to Elijah’s prophecy against Jezebel. It is also the name of a son of Hosea and Gomer.

• Jonathan — Jonathan was a son of King Saul in the Hebrew Bible, famed as a skilled archer and as David’s close friend. He warned David, appears for his military exploits, and dies with Saul in battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa; David later laments his death and praises their love.

• Sabbateanism
  • Sabbatai Zevi — Sabbatai Zevi was the 17th-century Jewish messiah claimant whose movement spread widely before his forced conversion to Islam. Nathan of Gaza backed him, and later antinomian Sabbatean ideas were said to influence Jacob Frank.

• Jubilee year — The jubilee year in Leviticus 25 is a recurring biblical year marked by a trumpet blast. In that year, land returns to its original family and Israelite bondservants are released.

• Megillot — The Megillot are the five scrolls in the Hebrew Bible, traditionally associated with festival readings. They include the Song of Solomon along with four other short books.
  • Five Megillot — The Five Megillot are the five scrolls of the Hebrew Bible read on Jewish holidays such as Purim, Passover, Shavuot, Sukkot, and the Ninth of Av. They include the Song of Solomon along with four other books.
• Purim story
  • Mordechai — Mordechai is the Jewish hero of the Purim story, Esther’s uncle and guardian. He refuses to bow to Haman, helps expose Haman’s plot, and is ultimately honored when Haman is executed on the gallows meant for Mordechai.

• Hosea — Hosea is the minor prophet whose marriage to Gomer symbolizes Israel’s unfaithfulness in the Hebrew Bible. His book includes the children Jezreel, Lo-Ruhamah, and Lo-Ammi, along with prophetic denunciations of idolatry and calls for repentance.

• Jewish pseudepigrapha
  • Book of Jubilees — The Book of Jubilees is a Jewish pseudepigraphal retelling of Genesis that organizes sacred history into 49-year jubilees. It is also called Lesser Genesis or the Book of Division, and it appears in the Ethiopian canon.

• Manasseh — Manasseh is both a biblical tribe and a Judahite king associated with idolatry and bloodshed. Clues include Joseph’s eldest son, the tribe descended from him, and the wicked king who ruled after Hezekiah.

• Melchizedek — Melchizedek is the king of Salem who blesses Abram and receives a tithe in Genesis. In later Jewish, Christian, and Mormon tradition, he becomes a priestly figure associated with a higher priesthood and the order after which Jesus is said to serve.

• Micah — Micah is the Old Testament minor prophet who foretells that a ruler will come from Bethlehem. His book condemns social injustice and includes the command to walk humbly with God.

• Moabites — The Moabites are a people of the Bible descended from Lot, associated with King Balak and worship of Chemosh. They appear in the book of Ruth, and biblical stories about them also include Ehud’s killing of Eglon and the origin of the word shibboleth.

• Moloch — Moloch is the biblical and literary figure associated with child sacrifice, especially in descriptions of pagan worship and the fiery rites of Topheth. Writers from Milton to Ginsberg use the name metaphorically for destructive, bloodthirsty power.

• Moses — Moses, called Musa in Islam and Moshe in Hebrew, led the Israelites out of Egypt in the Exodus and confronted Pharaoh. He was hidden as a baby in a basket on the Nile and named by Pharaoh’s daughter because she drew him out of the water. His story includes the burning bush, the Ten Commandments received at Mount Sinai, the breaking of the tablets after the golden-calf episode, water struck from a rock, the Red Sea crossing, and the bronze serpent. Aaron and Miriam are his siblings, and Zipporah is his wife. Islamic tradition also includes his encounter with Khidr, his time in Midian after helping Shuaib’s daughters, his receipt of revelation from God without Jibril’s intervention, and his intercession that reduced the daily prayers from fifty to five. The Qur’an associates him with the golden calf incident and other miracles.
  • The Staff of Moses — The Staff of Moses is the biblical rod associated with Moses, including the episode in which it becomes a serpent at the burning bush. It is also the staff raised during the battle against the Amalekites and a recurring object in later religious traditions.

• Mount Sinai — Mount Sinai is the biblical mountain where Moses received the Ten Commandments and where the Israelites made the golden calf. It is also identified with Horeb in some passages, and later Christian tradition connects the site with Saint Catherine’s Monastery.

• Naboth’s vineyard
  • Naboth — Naboth is the Israelite whose vineyard King Ahab covets in the story later condemned by Elijah. Jezebel arranges for Naboth to be stoned so that Ahab can seize the land, making him a classic biblical victim of royal greed.

• Witch of En-dor — The Witch of En-dor is the woman Saul consults to summon the spirit of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible. She is described as a medium or sorceress in the book of Samuel.

• Kings of Judah
  • Asa — Asa was a king of Judah who reigned for 41 years. Biblical accounts say he died in severe pain from a disease of the feet.

Biblical Books and Narrative Worlds

• Tanakh — the Hebrew Bible, an acronym of its three parts: Torah (the Five Books of Moses/Pentateuch), Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The Tanakh is the Jewish canon of twenty-four Hebrew books, also called the Hebrew Bible or Hebrew Scriptures. Its authoritative form is the Masoretic Text, and it is often associated with the Aleppo and Leningrad Codices and with targums. It overlaps substantially with the Christian Old Testament.

• Torah — the five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; contains the 613 mitzvot (commandments) as traditionally counted. It is the first five books of the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament, and in Judaism is the central scripture. It is also read from scrolls with a yad, recited in an aliyah, studied in weekly portions, and associated with bar and bat mitzvah rituals and Chabad study.
  • Book of Exodus — Second book of the Hebrew Bible, recounting Moses’ birth, the burning bush, the plagues, the Passover, the Ten Commandments, and the Israelites’ departure from Egypt. Common clues include the golden calf, Jannes and Jambres, and the revelation at Sinai.

    • a rock — The object is a rock or stone, the thing Moses struck to bring forth water in the wilderness narratives. That episode appears both at Meribah in the Hebrew Bible and in a similar Quranic story about Musa.

    • Exodus — Exodus is the biblical book that tells of Moses, the plagues of Egypt, the Passover, and the Israelites’ flight from slavery. It also contains the burning bush, the Ten Commandments, the golden calf, and the song of triumph after crossing the sea.

      • Jethro — Jethro is the Midianite priest and Moses’s father-in-law, and the father of Zipporah. He is honored in Druze tradition as Shu’ayb. He gives his name to the Torah portion in Exodus 18–20, where the Israelites receive the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai.

      • Moses narratives
        • burning bush — The burning bush is the plant on Mount Horeb from which God speaks to Moses and tells him to remove his shoes. It is also linked to later Christian symbolism and tradition, including claims that the relic survives at St. Catherine’s Monastery.

      • parting of the Red Sea — The parting of the Red Sea is the biblical miracle in which the Israelites escaped Egypt through divided waters. Midrashic tradition links the event to Nachshon ben Aminadav, who entered the sea first and helped initiate the crossing.

      • The Exodus — The Exodus is the biblical departure of the Israelites from Egypt under Moses. It includes the Passover, the crossing of the Red Sea, forty years of wandering in the Sinai, and the giving of manna.

      • Tzipporah — Tzipporah is Moses’s wife and the daughter of Jethro. She appears in The Prince of Egypt, where Michelle Pfeiffer provides her voice.

      • Song of the Sea — Song of the Sea is the biblical poem in Exodus that celebrates God’s deliverance at the Red Sea. It is a classic clue for Miriam, who leads the women in singing and is later punished with leprosy after criticizing Moses.

    • golden calf — The golden calf is the idolatrous image made by the Israelites while Moses was on Mount Sinai. Questions often mention Aaron, the Levites, Jeroboam’s calves at Bethel and Dan, and the story of the idol being ground up and mixed with water.

    • The Book of Exodus — Exodus is the second book of the Torah and the Old Testament, narrating Moses, the plagues, the escape from Egypt, and the giving of the Ten Commandments at Sinai. It also contains the burning bush theophany, the golden calf episode, and the building of the Tabernacle.
  • Book of Genesis — The Book of Genesis is the first book of the Bible and the Torah. It opens with the creation accounts and includes the stories of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, as well as the flood, the Tower of Babel, the binding of Isaac, and Jacob’s ladder. Other episodes include Sodom and Gomorrah and the declaration “Let there be light.”

    • Am I my brother’s keeper? — “Am I my brother’s keeper?” is Cain’s rhetorical reply after God asks about Abel in Genesis. The line is a classic expression of evasion of moral responsibility and is especially familiar through older biblical translations.

    • ancestral family narratives
      • Zilpah and Bilhah — Zilpah and Bilhah were the handmaids of Leah and Rachel, respectively, in Genesis. Each bore two sons to Jacob, making them important figures in the ancestral family narratives.

    • curse of Ham — The curse of Ham is the biblical statement in Genesis 9 that was often used to justify racial slavery, though the curse technically falls on Canaan rather than Ham. Later interpreters linked it to claims about Noah’s sons and to postbiblical attempts to explain the passage’s implications.

    • Genesis 1 — Genesis 1 is the opening chapter of the Bible, beginning with the creation of heaven and earth. Augustine’s City of God and medieval encyclopedic works often treated its six-day creation account allegorically.

    • Ham — Ham is the son of Noah whose failure to cover his father after the flood leads to the curse on Canaan. Clues often connect him to racist colonial theories that used the so-called curse of Ham to justify slavery and anti-Black ideology.

    • Joseph — The biblical son of Jacob and Rachel, sold into slavery by his brothers before rising in Egypt through his ability to interpret dreams. His story includes Potiphar’s wife, the coat of many colors, the seven fat and seven thin cows, his brothers throwing him into a well, and his reunion with Jacob and his brothers. In Islamic tradition he is Yusuf, and his story appears in surah 12 of the Qur’an.

    • Matriarchs
      • Rebekah — Wife of Isaac and mother of Jacob and Esau. She is a matriarch in Genesis and a key figure in the family line of Israel; her story includes meeting Abraham’s servant at the well and helping secure Jacob’s blessing.

    • Onan — Onan is the biblical figure associated with refusing levirate duty and “spilling his seed on the ground.” His story appears in Genesis, where he is punished after Judah orders him to marry his brother’s widow Tamar.

    • Patriarchs
      • Methuselah — Methuselah is the biblical patriarch who lived to age 969. In Genesis he is the son of Enoch, the grandson of Jared, the father of Lamech, and the grandfather of Noah. His name is also attached to the long-lived bristlecone pine once considered the oldest known living organism.
    • primordial humans
      • Adam and Eve — Adam and Eve are the Biblical first man and woman, frequently shown nude with fig leaves or branches and expelled from Eden. Art clues include the Sistine Chapel, Masaccio’s Expulsion from the Garden of Eden, the Ghent Altarpiece, Dürer’s engraving, and the Garden of Earthly Delights. They also appear in later literature and allegory as the archetypal human pair.
        • Adam — Adam is the first man in the Abrahamic religions and, in Islam, the first prophet, created by Allah from clay and dust. He is the husband of Eve in Christian and Jewish tradition and of Hawwa in Islamic tradition. He is associated with the Garden of Eden, the Fall, Cain and Abel, and the refusal of Iblis to bow before him. Milton’s Paradise Lost and other literary retellings feature him as a central figure.

    • Shem — Shem is the eldest son of Noah in Genesis and the ancestor from whom the term Semitic is derived. In later tradition he is linked with figures such as Melchizedek and is treated as an ancestor of Abraham and other Middle Eastern peoples.

    • Sodom and Gomorrah — Sodom and Gomorrah are the biblical cities destroyed after the visit of two angels to Lot in Genesis. Their story also includes Lot’s wife looking back and becoming a pillar of salt, and later traditions treat Sodom as a source of the word for sexual sins.
      • Gomorrah — Gomorrah is the biblical city destroyed alongside Sodom for its wickedness. It appears in the Lot narrative, where the destruction of the cities of the plain becomes a classic warning about divine judgment.

    • ZOAR — Zoar is the biblical city to which Lot fled after the destruction of Sodom. It is identified as a city on the plain that was spared for Lot’s refuge.

    • Potiphar’s wife — Potiphar’s wife is the woman who falsely accuses Joseph after he refuses her advances in the Genesis story. Her accusation sends Joseph to prison and becomes a standard example of temptation and false accusation in biblical retellings.

    • the Biblical Flood — The Biblical Flood is the Genesis catastrophe in which Noah survives in the ark with pairs of animals. It ends with the rainbow covenant after the waters recede, and it is also called the Deluge or Noah’s Flood.

    • Lot’s daughters — Lot’s daughters are the women in Genesis who flee Sodom with their family and later get their father drunk, becoming the mothers of Moab and Ben-ammi. They are often discussed in biblical interpretation for the disturbing episode in which they preserve their line after the destruction of the city.

    • Lot’s Wife — Lot’s wife is the unnamed biblical woman who looked back at Sodom and was turned into a pillar of salt. She appears in Genesis 19 and is remembered in later Jewish, Christian, and poetic retellings.

    • Potiphar — Potiphar is the Egyptian official in Genesis whose wife accuses Joseph, leading to Joseph’s imprisonment. In Islamic tradition he is often called al-Aziz, and later retellings preserve the story of the wife’s attempted seduction.

    • Rachel and Leah — Jacob’s two wives were Rachel and Leah. They are the pair named in biblical questions about his family and marriages.

    • Abraham’s family
      • Milcah — Milcah appears in the Hebrew Bible as a relative of Abraham and a member of the broader family line associated with Terah. She is presented as both Abraham’s niece and the grandmother of Laban.
    • Adam and Eve’s children
      • Abel — Abel is the shepherd son of Adam and Eve whose acceptable sacrifice led to his being murdered by his brother Cain. He appears in biblical and later religious traditions as a righteous martyr, with his story linked to Cain’s exile and the first murder in Genesis.
    • Binding of Isaac — Genesis 22 episode in which God tests Abraham by commanding him to offer his son Isaac as a sacrifice; after Abraham is stopped, a ram is substituted and the covenant is reaffirmed. The scene is a major subject in art, including the famous Florence Baptistery competition panels by Ghiberti and Brunelleschi, and works by Donatello and Raphael. Kierkegaard uses it in Fear and Trembling to explore faith, ethics, and the leap beyond ordinary moral reasoning.
      • Moriah — Moriah is the mountain in Genesis where Abraham was commanded to sacrifice Isaac before an angel stopped him. It is also linked by later Jewish tradition with the site of Solomon’s Temple.

    • Cain — Cain is the eldest son of Adam and Eve, the first murderer in Genesis, who killed his brother Abel and was marked and exiled to the Land of Nod. He appears in later literature and myth as a wandering figure associated with guilt and fratricide.

    • Dinah — Dinah is Jacob and Leah’s daughter in Genesis, remembered for the episode in which Shechem violates her and her brothers Simeon and Levi take vengeance. Her story appears in Genesis 34 and is often used in quizbowl as a Bible identification clue.

    • Eden — Eden is the Biblical garden where Adam and Eve lived before the Fall. It is also invoked in titles and imagery ranging from Peter Gabriel’s song “Blood of Eden” to works such as Assassin’s Creed and The Binding of Isaac.

    • Leah — Leah is Jacob’s first wife in Genesis and the older sister of Rachel. Laban tricked Jacob into marrying Leah, and she became the mother of several of the tribes of Israel, including Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah.

    • Leah and Rachel — Leah and Rachel were the two daughters of Laban who became Jacob’s wives.

    • Noah’s sons
      • Japheth — Japheth is one of Noah’s sons in Genesis and is traditionally associated with the peoples of the Mediterranean and parts of Asia Minor. He appears in lists of the biblical sons of Noah alongside Ham and Shem.

    • Sarah — Sarah, also called Sarai, is the wife of Abraham and the mother of Isaac. In Genesis she is initially barren, laughs at the promise of a son in her old age, receives the visitors who announce Isaac’s birth, and is involved in episodes where Abraham passes her off as his sister before Pharaoh and Abimelech. She is also described as the matriarch in Genesis and, in later tradition, as the mother of nations.

    • Ham, Shem, and Japheth — Ham, Shem, and Japheth are the three sons of Noah in the Hebrew Bible. Biblical genealogies often trace humanity’s post-Flood line through these three figures.

    • Jacob’s Ladder — Jacob’s Ladder is the biblical vision in which Jacob saw angels ascending and descending between earth and heaven at Bethel. The name also appears in literature and in plant names, including a Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings short story and the Polemonium genus.

    • Lamech — Lamech is the Cainite figure who boasts to his wives Adah and Zillah that he has killed a man and a boy and should be avenged seventy-sevenfold. The name also belongs to Noah’s father, making it a recurring biblical name tied both to violence in Genesis and to the genealogy before the Flood.

    • Manasseh and Ephraim — Manasseh and Ephraim were the two sons of Joseph and Asenath in Genesis. They became the eponymous tribes descended from Joseph rather than part of the usual twelve-tribe list by Jacob’s sons.

    • Sodom — Sodom is the biblical city destroyed with Gomorrah after Abraham negotiated for its survival and Lot fled as fire and brimstone fell. Quizbowl clues center on Lot’s wife turning to salt, the offer of Lot’s daughters to a mob, and later allusions in Revelation and the Talmud.
  • Book of Numbers — The fourth book of the Bible and Hebrew Bible, following Leviticus and preceding Deuteronomy. It is named for the censuses of the Israelites in the wilderness and includes the stories of Balaam and his talking donkey/ass, the bronze serpent, the rebellion at Kadesh, the rebellion of Korah, the daughters of Zelophehad, and the appointment of Joshua as Moses’s successor. Its narrative bridges Leviticus and Deuteronomy.
    • Balaam — Balaam is the non-Israelite prophet in Numbers who is hired by Balak to curse Israel but ends up blessing them instead. He is remembered for his talking donkey, the angel blocking his path, and the blessing that begins, “How lovely are your tents, O Jacob!”
      • Balaam’s ass — Balaam’s ass is the biblical donkey that miraculously speaks after being struck by its owner on the way to curse Israel. It appears in Maimonides’ discussion of prophecy in the Guide for the Perplexed.

    • Caleb and Joshua — Caleb and Joshua were the only two men from the Exodus generation who survived the wilderness and entered the Promised Land. They are the exceptions to the census generation that died in the desert after the journey from Egypt.

    • Twelve Spies — The Twelve Spies were the Israelite scouts sent to inspect Canaan before the conquest of the Promised Land. Joshua and Caleb were the only two who returned with a favorable report, while the others feared the Nephilim.
  • Deuteronomy — Deuteronomy is the fifth and final book of the Torah and Pentateuch, and the fifth book of the Old Testament. Framed as Moses’s farewell speeches on the plains of Moab, it contains the Shema, covenant laws, blessings and curses, and an emphasis on one central sanctuary. It closes with the account of Moses’s death on Mount Nebo. In Jewish practice it supplies passages placed in mezuzahs, is linked to Josiah’s reforms, and gives its name to the Deuteronomistic History. Its Hebrew title means “These are the words.”
    • Shema — The Shema is the central creed drawn from Deuteronomy, the final book of the Torah and a long set of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab. It also contains laws on judges, evidence, pilgrimage festivals, and the requirement that sacrifice be centralized in one sanctuary.
  • documentary hypothesis — The documentary hypothesis holds that the Torah was compiled from multiple earlier sources rather than written by Moses. It is commonly described through the source labels J, E, D, and P and is associated in English with Wellhausen.
    • Julius Wellhausen — Julius Wellhausen was the scholar who codified the documentary hypothesis in its classic J, E, D, and P form. His Prolegomena to the History of Israel argued that the Pentateuch was a composite text shaped by distinct sources.
  • Ten Commandments — In the Hebrew Bible, the Ten Commandments are the stone tablets given to Moses on Mount Sinai and later placed in the Ark of the Covenant. They are traditionally associated with the laws forbidding idolatry, murder, theft, and false witness; the tablets were destroyed after the golden calf incident. The Wicked Bible is notorious for a misprint involving them.
    • Exodus and Deuteronomy — The Ten Commandments are found in Exodus and Deuteronomy.
  • The Book of Leviticus — Leviticus is the priestly book of the Pentateuch, focused on laws, rites, sacrifice, and rules for clean and unclean conduct. It includes instructions for Aaron and his sons, as well as regulations for festivals such as Passover, Pentecost, and Yom Kippur.
• Noah — biblical patriarch; central to the flood narrative in Genesis, in which God commands Noah to build an ark to preserve his family and pairs of animals from a world-destroying flood; after the flood, God establishes a covenant with Noah (symbolized by a rainbow), promising never to destroy all life by flood again; Noah is recognized as a prophet in Islam (Nuh) as well. He is associated with the dove and olive branch sent from the ark, and with his sons Ham, Shem, and Japheth; the story also includes Noah’s curse on Canaan.
  • Noah’s Ark — Noah’s Ark is the vessel built by Noah to survive the Flood, carrying animals and his family. Tradition places its resting place on Mount Ararat or Mount Judi, and some modern searches have focused on the Durupinar site. The ark is central to Genesis and later Jewish and Islamic traditions, and it is sometimes confused with the Ark of the Covenant because of shared ancient terminology. It also appears in later literature and theme-park recreations such as Ark Encounter.

• Amalek — a people described in the Hebrew Bible as the archetypal enemy of Israel; Amalek attacked the Israelites from behind after the Exodus (Deuteronomy 25:17–19); the commandment to “blot out the memory of Amalek” (mechiyas Amalek) is one of the 613 mitzvot; in later rabbinic and Kabbalistic thought, Amalek represents evil or the evil inclination (yetzer ha-ra). They are also associated with the battle at Rephidim; later Jewish tradition links Amalek with Saul, Samuel, and David.

• Naaman — an Aramean military commander healed of leprosy by the prophet Elisha, as recounted in 2 Kings 5; the story is notable for depicting a non-Israelite receiving divine healing and subsequently declaring monotheistic allegiance to the God of Israel; Jesus cites the story in Luke 4 as an example of prophetic ministry extending beyond Israel.

• Goliath — the Philistine giant warrior slain by the young David with a sling and stone, as recounted in 1 Samuel 17; the story is a foundational narrative of divine favor and courage over brute strength; “David and Goliath” is a widely used idiom for an underdog overcoming a powerful adversary.

• Obadiah — the shortest book in the Hebrew Bible (21 verses); one of the twelve Minor Prophets; contains an oracle of judgment against Edom (the nation descended from Esau) for gloating over Jerusalem’s fall; promises the eventual restoration of Israel.

• Elijah — a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in the 9th century BCE (1 and 2 Kings); called the Tishbite; prophesied a multi-year drought against the wicked King Ahab and his Phoenician queen Jezebel, who promoted the worship of Baal; was fed by ravens and by a widow at Zarephath (whose son he revived); defeated the prophets of Baal in a contest on Mount Carmel by calling down fire; encountered God not in wind, earthquake, or fire but in a “still small voice” at Horeb; did not die but was taken up to heaven in a whirlwind by a chariot of fire, leaving his mantle to his successor Elisha; in Jewish tradition his return (Malachi 4) heralds the Messiah, and a cup is set for him at the Passover Seder. He is also said to have anointed kings in Israel and Syria, and in later Jewish and Christian tradition he appears as a visitor at brit milah and at the Transfiguration.
  • chariot of fire — A chariot of fire is the fiery supernatural vehicle that carries Elijah into heaven in 2 Kings 2:11. It is also invoked in the hymn ‘Jerusalem’ as one of the emblematic weapons and conveyances of divine warfare.

• Samson — one of the Judges of Israel (Book of Judges 13–16); a Nazirite from birth (his birth foretold to his father Manoah) whose vow forbade cutting his hair, the source of his superhuman strength; killed a lion with his bare hands and later found bees and honey in its carcass (basis of his wedding riddle); slew a thousand Philistines with the jawbone of a donkey; was betrayed by Delilah, who learned his secret and had his hair shaved, allowing the Philistines to blind and imprison him; in a final act of strength he pulled down the temple of Dagon at Gaza, killing himself and his captors; the subject of Milton’s closet drama Samson Agonistes (1671) and Saint-Saëns’s opera Samson et Dalila.

• Job — the title figure of the Book of Job (in the Ketuvim/Writings), a righteous man from the land of Uz; the prose frame describes a wager in the divine court in which Satan (literally “the Adversary”) is permitted to afflict Job, killing his children and covering him with boils, to test whether his piety survives loss; Job’s three friends Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar insist his suffering must be deserved, while a fourth, Elihu, speaks last; God finally answers Job out of a whirlwind, appealing to the inscrutability of creation rather than explaining the suffering; sources of the lines “the Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away” and “I know that my redeemer liveth”; adapted by Archibald MacLeish in the verse play J.B. (with Mr. Zuss and Nickles as God and Satan) and set by Vaughan Williams as the masque Job. Job, also called Iyyav or Ayyub, is the righteous sufferer of the Hebrew Bible. His book features the friends Bildad, Eliphaz, and Zophar, followed by Elihu’s speech and God’s refusal to answer Job directly. The figure is central to the Book of Job and later apocryphal retellings, including a testament that names his wife Sitis.

• Lot — the nephew of Abraham and son of Haran; settled near Sodom, was taken captive by Chedorlaomer and rescued by Abraham; when God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot and his family were allowed to flee to Zoar, but his wife looked back and was turned into a pillar of salt (Genesis 19); afterward his two daughters, believing the world destroyed, made him drunk and lay with him, producing the ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites; regarded as a prophet (Lut) in Islam but not in Judaism or Christianity.

• Deborah — the only female judge of Israel and a prophetess (Book of Judges 4–5); described as the wife of Lapidoth, she rendered judgments while seated beneath a palm tree; she summoned the general Barak to lead the Israelites against Sisera, the commander of the Canaanite king Jabin’s army, and accompanied him into battle; after the victory (in which Sisera was killed by Jael) she sang the Song of Deborah (Judges 5), one of the oldest passages of Hebrew poetry; the line “the mountains flowed before the Lord” inspired the rheology unit the Deborah number. Jael killed Sisera with a tent peg.

• Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth) — a book of the Ketuvim attributed by tradition to Solomon; its speaker, called Qoheleth (“the Preacher” or “the Teacher”), opens with “vanity of vanities, all is vanity” (hevel), reflecting on the fleeting and cyclical nature of life; the source of “to every thing there is a season” (3:1) and the conclusion that man’s whole duty is to “fear God, and keep his commandments”; one of the five megillot, read liturgically on Sukkot; a perennial reference point in Western literature (a misquotation serves as the epigraph of Baudrillard’s Simulacra and Simulation).

• Hebrew Bible
  • Samson cycle
    • Delilah — Delilah is the Philistine woman who betrays Samson by revealing the source of his strength, leading to his capture and humiliation. Her story is associated with cutting Samson’s hair, the loss of his power, and later pop-song titles that reuse her name.
  • Saul and David
    • Michal — Michal was the daughter of Saul and the first wife of David in the Hebrew Bible. She helped David escape Saul, and Saul later gave her another husband.

  • Immanuel — Biblical name from Isaiah meaning “God is with us.” It is the prophetic name associated with the birth of Jesus, often paired with the Hebrew scripture prophecy of a virgin conceiving a son, and it appears in the Advent hymn “O Come, O Come, Emmanuel.” It is also used as a given name, as in social theorist Immanuel Wallerstein, who developed world-systems theory with its core and periphery model.

  • The Book of Ezekiel — This book opens with Ezekiel’s vision by the river Chebar and later includes the valley of dry bones. It also contains oracles against Tyre and Pharaoh, the allegory of the sisters, and the prophet’s refusal to mourn his wife in the usual way. Its closing visions include Gog and Magog, the restored temple, and a life-giving stream flowing from that temple.
• Kings and queens of Judah
  • Athaliah — Athaliah was a queen of Judah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, who promoted Baal worship in the southern kingdom. She seized power after destroying most of the House of David, but Jehoash survived and eventually replaced her.
• Kings of Israel and Judah
  • Kings of Israel — The kings of Israel were rulers of the biblical united monarchy and, after the split under Rehoboam, the later kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Figures associated with the title include Saul, David, Solomon, Rehoboam, and Ish-bosheth. Their narratives appear throughout Samuel, Kings, and related biblical histories, including David’s battle with Goliath, Solomon’s judgment over the disputed child, Naboth’s vineyard, and the Queen of Sheba episode.
    • Jehu — Jehu is the Old Testament king of Israel who seized power through a violent coup and destroyed the house of Ahab. He had Jezebel thrown from a window, trampled her to death, and exterminated the priests of Baal. His reputation for reckless driving comes from the biblical line that he drives like a madman.
• Books of Samuel

  • Goliath of Gath — Goliath of Gath is the Philistine giant slain by David with a sling in the Hebrew Bible. He is a standard clue for the giant defeated in the First Book of Samuel.

  • King Saul — Saul was the first king of Israel and the predecessor of David. His reign ended in disaster at Mount Gilboa, after clashes with Samuel, David, and the Philistines.

  • 2 Samuel — A book of the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament centered on the reign of King David. It continues the story of David’s rise and reign, beginning after the death of the prophet Samuel, and includes the narratives of David and Bathsheba, Uriah, Absalom, and Amnon, as well as the parable Nathan delivers to David.

    • Uriah the Hittite — Uriah the Hittite is the husband of Bathsheba whom David arranged to have killed after impregnating her. He appears in 2 Samuel as a foreign warrior who refuses domestic comfort during war and is later placed on the front lines by Joab.

    • Uzzah — Uzzah is the biblical figure who died after touching the Ark of the Covenant to steady it while it was being transported. His death is recorded as a punishment for handling the sacred object improperly.

  • Nathan — Nathan is the biblical prophet who rebuked King David for his sin with Bathsheba and used the parable of the poor man’s lamb. He is associated with telling David that one of his sons would build the Temple and with composing or inspiring material in Chronicles.

  • The Witch of Endor — The Witch of Endor is the biblical woman who summons the spirit of Samuel for King Saul. After the ghost foretells Saul’s defeat and death, she becomes part of the story of Saul’s doomed attempt to consult the dead.
• Books of the Bible
  • Lamentations — The biblical book of mourning over the destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple, traditionally attributed to Jeremiah. It consists of five poetic laments, with the first four arranged as alphabetic acrostics. Its Hebrew title is Ekhah, and it is traditionally read on Tisha B’Av and associated with Tenebrae services.
    • The Book of Lamentations — The Book of Lamentations is a biblical collection of five poems mourning the destruction of Jerusalem, traditionally linked to Jeremiah. The first four poems are acrostics, and the book is read on the Ninth of Av in Jewish tradition.
• Book of Esther — The Book of Esther recounts how Esther and Mordecai saved the Jews of Persia from Haman’s planned genocide. It is the biblical book read on Purim, and is notable for Vashti’s dismissal, the casting of lots, and Haman’s execution on the gallows he had built for Mordecai. In Jewish tradition it is often read from a megillah scroll and is one of the few biblical books that does not directly mention God. In Catholic tradition, its Vulgate form includes apocryphal additions not part of the Hebrew Bible.

  • Haman — Haman is the Persian vizier in the Book of Esther who plots the extermination of the Jews of Shushan after Mordecai refuses to bow to him. His downfall is celebrated at Purim, when people drown out his name, make noise in festive customs, eat hamantaschen, and remember his ten sons, who are said to have died together. He is the villain of the Purim story and the source for triangular pastries shaped like his ears or hat.

  • Mordecai — Mordecai is the Jewish figure in Esther who uncovered the plot of Bigthan and Teresh and refused to bow to Haman. His loyalty leads to Haman’s downfall, making him one of the key heroes of the Purim story.

  • Vashti — Vashti is the Persian queen in the Book of Esther who refuses to appear before Ahasuerus at his banquet. Her removal makes way for Esther and has been read in later tradition as an early act of women’s resistance.

• Book of Judges — The biblical book between Joshua and Ruth, it tells of the pre-monarchic leaders of Israel after Joshua, including Deborah, Gideon, Ehud, Samson, Jephthah, and others. Its episodes include the shibboleth test, Jael killing Sisera, Ehud stabbing Eglon, Gideon’s fleece and his three hundred men, the violence at Gibeah, and Samson’s betrayal by Delilah and destruction of the Philistine temple. In the King James Bible, Gideon is told that the three hundred who lapped the water will be enough to save Israel. Its repeated refrain is that “everyone did as they saw fit.”

  • Abimelech — Abimelech is a biblical king-name attached both to the Gerar ruler who is fooled by Isaac and to a murderous judge in the Book of Judges. In Judges, he kills seventy brothers and dies after a millstone is dropped on him, prompting him to ask his armor-bearer to finish him off.

  • Barak — Barak was the Israelite commander chosen by Deborah to fight Sisera and the Canaanites in Judges. He is remembered for the victory at Mount Tabor, after which Sisera fled and was killed by Jael.

  • Ehud ben-Gera — Ehud ben-Gera is the left-handed judge of Israel who assassinated King Eglon of Moab with a hidden dagger, then rallied Israelite forces at the Jordan River and brought peace for eighty years.

  • Gideon — Gideon is the biblical judge who defeated the Midianites with only 300 men after testing God with a fleece. He destroyed his father’s altar to Baal, took the name Jerub-Baal, and later became the father of Abimelech.

  • Jephthah — Jephthah is the Israelite judge who vowed to sacrifice the first thing that greeted him after victory over the Ammonites. The bargain leads to the death of his daughter, and the story is also remembered for the shibboleth episode in which Ephraimites are identified by their pronunciation.

  • Judges of Israel — The Judges of Israel were the tribal leaders and military deliverers of the Hebrew Bible after Joshua, including Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, Ehud, and Samson. They are the figures for whom the biblical Book of Judges is named.

  • Manoah — Manoah is the father of Samson in the Book of Judges. In the biblical story, an angel tells his barren wife that she will conceive Samson.

  • Othniel ben Kenaz — The first judge of Israel, associated with the tribe of Judah. He was the son of Kenaz and the younger brother of Caleb, and later became Caleb’s son-in-law. Othniel delivered Israel from Cushan-rishathaim (also called Chushan-rishathaim), the king of Aram-naharaim/Aram-Naharaim.

  • Shamgar — Shamgar is a judge in the Book of Judges who slew 600 Philistines with an ox-goad. The Song of Deborah places him in a time when caravans had ceased and travelers kept to the byways.

  • Sisera — Sisera was a Canaanite general defeated by Deborah and Barak in the biblical story. He is remembered for being killed by Jael, who drove a tent peg through his head.

• Book of Psalms

  • Psalm 150 — Psalm 150 is the final psalm in the Book of Psalms, beginning with praise in God’s holy places and ending with the call for every breath to praise the Lord. It is a short doxology centered on exuberant praise.

  • Psalm 91 — Psalm 91 is the psalm that promises rescue from the snare of the fowler and deadly pestilence and is often called the Soldier’s Prayer. It is also associated with divine refuge under the shadow of the Almighty and was adapted by Martin Luther in “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God.”

• Book of Ruth — A short biblical book in the Ketuvim about Ruth of Moab, Naomi, and Boaz. Ruth stays with Naomi after the family’s move from Moab to Bethlehem; the book ends with Ruth’s marriage to Boaz and the birth of Obed, with the genealogy of Obed, Jesse, and David. It is known for Ruth’s pledge “whither thou goest, I will go” and the threshing-floor scene.

  • Boaz — Boaz is the kinsman-redeemer in the Book of Ruth who marries Ruth after providing for her and Naomi. In biblical genealogy, he is identified as an ancestor of Jesus and the son of Salmon and Rahab in later tradition.

  • Naomi — Naomi is the mother-in-law of Ruth in the Book of Ruth, and the pair travel together to Bethlehem after Naomi is widowed. Some modern readings also treat the bond between Naomi and Ruth as erotically charged, which occasionally appears in questions about biblical interpretations of homosexuality.

  • Ruth — Ruth is the Moabite woman in the Old Testament who stays with Naomi, gleans in Boaz’s fields, and becomes the great-grandmother of David. Quiz clues often focus on the sandal-redeeming legal custom, the threshing floor scene, and her role in the Book of Ruth read on Shavuot.

    • Orpah — Orpah is the Moabite daughter-in-law of Naomi who returned to her own people, unlike Ruth. Later traditions identified her with other legendary figures, but the biblical clue is the woman left behind when Naomi went back to Israel.
• Book of the Twelve
  • Book of Habakkuk — This short prophetic book directly precedes Zephaniah and is famous for the line that the righteous shall live by faith. It contains a lament over injustice, a divine promise to send the Babylonians, and a final prayer that closes with a musical direction.
• Books of Kings
  • 1 Kings — 1 Kings is an Old Testament book placed between Samuel and Chronicles. It contains the stories of Elijah, the widow of Zarephath, and David in old age.
    • Jezebel — Jezebel is the Phoenician wife of Ahab in First Kings, notorious for promoting Baal worship and persecuting prophets. Her name became a byword for wicked women, and clues may mention Naboth’s death, the prophecies against her, or her gruesome end at Jehu’s command.
  • Book of Kings — The Book of Kings is the pair of Old Testament books that recount the history of Israel’s rulers. It includes stories about Solomon’s succession, Ahab and Jezebel, Elijah and Elisha, and the division of the kingdom.
    • Ahab — Ahab is the wicked king of Israel in First Kings, husband of Jezebel and enemy of Elijah. He murders Naboth to steal a vineyard, backs the prophets of Baal, and dies in battle at Ramoth-Gilead after Micaiah foretells disaster. Jehu later destroys his house; biblical tradition also connects his reign with Mount Carmel.
• Ezra-Nehemiah

  • Book of Ezra — The Book of Ezra tells of the return from Babylonian exile and the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple. It features Zerubbabel, Ezra’s reforms against intermarriage, and Persian rulers such as Cyrus and Artaxerxes.

  • Book of Nehemiah — The Book of Nehemiah tells how the cup-bearer Nehemiah returns to rebuild Jerusalem’s walls and reform the community. It is often treated as a continuation of Ezra and includes the opposition of Sanballat and Tobiah.

• Ketuvim — Ketuvim is the third and final division of the Hebrew Bible in the traditional Tanakh, after the Torah and Nevi’im. The name means “the Writings.” It includes books such as Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Ruth, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Ecclesiastes, and Lamentations, along with the five Megillot.
  • Scivias — Scivias is the visionary work of Hildegard of Bingen, the medieval Benedictine abbess also known for Ordo Virtutum and Lingua Ignota. Her music and mystical writings inspired later works, including modern compositions based on her melodies.

• Nevi’im — Nevi’im is the Prophets section of the Hebrew Bible, located between the Torah and the Writings. It contains the Former and Latter Prophets, including books such as Isaiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, and Amos.

• Prophetic books

  • Book of Ezekiel — The Book of Ezekiel is the prophetic book of visions, exile, and symbolic acts in the Hebrew Bible. It includes the valley of dry bones, the eating of a scroll, and the vision of the four living creatures and divine chariot.

  • Book of Isaiah — A major prophetic book of the Old Testament. It is associated with the call narrative in which Isaiah answers, “Here am I; send me,” the Immanuel prophecy, the suffering servant passages, and the final consolation sections of chapters 40 through 55. It also includes the image of a “voice crying in the wilderness” and is often cited by Christian readers as foretelling the coming of Jesus.
    • Servant Songs — The Servant Songs are a set of four passages in Isaiah describing a suffering servant figure. They are especially associated with Christian interpretation because they include images of rejection, affliction, and redemptive suffering.
  • Book of Jeremiah — The Book of Jeremiah is the prophetic book traditionally associated with the “weeping prophet” and the fall of Jerusalem to Babylon. It includes the call of Jeremiah, the little book of comfort, and famous warnings about Judah’s coming destruction.
    • Balm of Gilead — The balm of Gilead is a biblical healing substance or resin associated with Judah and with the lament in Jeremiah, “Is there no balm in Gilead?” It also appears in an African-American spiritual about healing a sin-sick soul.

  • Book of Malachi — This is the last book of the Twelve Minor Prophets and the final book of the Old Testament. Its themes include the complaint that the sons of Jacob have robbed God by withholding tithes, and it is often noted for the line “Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated.”

  • The Book of Jeremiah — The Book of Jeremiah is a major prophetic book of the Old Testament that includes visions, confessions, and prophecies of restoration. It also contains material attributed to Jeremiah’s scribe Baruch and ends with a historical appendix drawn from Kings.

• The Book of Nehemiah — The Book of Nehemiah is an Old Testament book about Nehemiah, who returns to Jerusalem under Persian authorization and helps rebuild its walls. It also contains reforms against social abuses and lists associated with the restored community.

• Historical books

  • Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles — The Old Testament books divided into two parts are Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles.

  • 1 Samuel — First Samuel is the biblical book that contains the story of David and Goliath. It also includes David’s boast that the Lord would protect him from the Philistine whom he faced.

• Genesis creation narrative
  • Let there be light — Let there be light is the divine command in Genesis that begins the creation narrative. The phrase is also associated with the inscription above the entrance to some libraries and other buildings.
• Genesis narratives
  • Tower of Babel — The Tower of Babel is the biblical structure whose construction was halted when God confused humanity’s languages. It is often tied to Brueghel’s paintings and to stories placing the unfinished tower in the plain of Shinar.
• 2 Kings
  • Hazael — Hazael was the Syrian officer told by Elisha that he would succeed Ben-Hadad as king. In 2 Kings, he later smothered Ben-Hadad to death and became ruler of Aram.
• Major Prophets
  • Isaiah — Isaiah is a major Hebrew prophet whose namesake book comes before Jeremiah and is famous for its vision of seraphs, the coal touching his lips, and the prophecy of Immanuel. He counseled Hezekiah during the Assyrian crisis and is also linked to the call narrative in which he says, “Here am I; send me.”
    • Isaiah 2:4 — Isaiah 2:4 is the biblical verse that says swords will be beaten into plowshares and spears into pruning hooks. It is often cited as a vision of universal peace in which nations no longer prepare for war.
  • The Book of Isaiah — The Book of Isaiah is one of the Major Prophets and contains famous passages about the suffering servant, the Prince of Peace, and the fall of Tyre. It also includes the sign against Egypt and Cush and the consolatory sections often called the Book of Comfort.
• Minor Prophets — The Minor Prophets are the twelve shorter prophetic books of the Hebrew Bible, collected together as a single book in the Tanakh. Figures such as Hosea, Obadiah, Haggai, and Malachi belong to this group.
  • Book of Hosea — The Book of Hosea is the first of the Minor Prophets and portrays Israel through Hosea’s marriage to Gomer. It also contains the wrestling episode involving Jacob and an angelic figure.
    • The Book of Hosea — The Book of Hosea is an Old Testament prophetic book centered on Hosea’s marriage to Gomer and the symbolic redemption of his unfaithful wife. Its message condemns Israel’s infidelity and idolatry while linking the prophet’s family life to divine mercy.

  • Book of Joel — The Book of Joel is the second of the Minor Prophets and is known for its images of locust plagues, drought, and the Day of the Lord. It is also the source of the prophecy that old men will dream dreams and young men will see visions, a passage quoted at Pentecost in Acts.

  • Book of Jonah — The Book of Jonah tells of the prophet who flees by ship from Joppa toward Tarshish, is swallowed by a great fish, and is then sent to preach against Nineveh. The book also features Jonah’s anger at God’s mercy, the withering of his shade-giving gourd, and the repentance of Nineveh under sackcloth and ashes.

  • Habakkuk — Habakkuk is a minor Old Testament prophet whose short book includes complaints about injustice and a concluding vision of God coming from Teman. He is also the bald prophet sculpted by Donatello as the Zuccone and by Bernini in a scene involving Daniel.

  • Habbakuk — Habakkuk is one of the Minor Prophets and was famously sculpted by Donatello in a stark marble statue nicknamed the Zuccone, or “pumpkin.” The prophet’s biblical speech and Donatello’s realistic treatment of him make the work a standard identification clue.

  • Haggai — Haggai is the minor prophet whose book urges the rebuilding of the Second Temple after the exile. He rebukes those who say the time has not yet come to rebuild the Temple and predicts blessings for Zerubbabel.

  • Joel — Joel is one of the Minor Prophets, and his book opens with a devastating locust plague and famine. It also contains the prophecy that God will pour out his spirit on all flesh and images of the moon turning to blood and the valley of decision.

  • Jonah — Jonah is the Hebrew biblical prophet who flees toward Tarshish, is cast overboard during a storm, and spends three days in the belly of a great fish before preaching in Nineveh. His book is one of the Minor Prophets and is unusual for telling a narrative rather than a sequence of oracles; it also includes the gourd, the worm, and the mission to warn Nineveh of impending destruction.

  • Nahum — Nahum is an Old Testament minor prophet whose short book predicts the destruction of Nineveh. The book is usually associated with the prophet from Elkosh and includes an acrostic poem alongside denunciations of Assyria.
• Twelve Minor Prophets

  • Book of Amos — The Book of Amos is a prophetic biblical book attributed to Amos, a shepherd from Tekoa who denounces the wealthy and unjust rulers of Israel. It appears among the Twelve Minor Prophets and is often dated to the reigns of Uzziah and Jeroboam II.

  • Malachi — Malachi is the last of the twelve minor prophets in the Christian Old Testament. The book emphasizes pure sacrifice, divine judgment, and the promise that Elijah will return before the end times.

• Wisdom literature
  • Ecclesiastes — The biblical wisdom book traditionally associated with Solomon and the speaker called Qoheleth, or “the Preacher.” It meditates on the futility and cycles of human life, repeatedly declaring that all is vanity or vapor, and reflects on the limits of wisdom, appointed times, and the search for meaning. It is known for lines such as “to everything there is a season,” “nothing new under the sun,” and “the race is not to the swift,” and it ends by urging readers to fear God and keep his commandments.
    • Qohelet — Qohelet is the Hebrew name of the speaker in Ecclesiastes, usually rendered as the Preacher or Teacher. The book’s famous refrain, “vanity of vanities,” comes from this reflective narrator who presents himself as a son of David in Jerusalem.
  • Book of Job — The Book of Job is the Old Testament wisdom book about a righteous sufferer whose faith is tested by disaster, bodily affliction, and a wager between God and Satan. Its famous speeches include Job’s friends Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar, God’s whirlwind questions, and the descriptions of Behemoth and Leviathan.

    • Elihu — Elihu is the youthful speaker in the Book of Job who finally rebukes Job after the other friends fail to explain his suffering. He delivers a long speech praising divine justice and is sometimes treated by scholars as a later addition to the text.

    • Eliphaz — Eliphaz is one of Job’s three friends in the Book of Job and is introduced as the first of them to speak. In the final divine speech, God tells Eliphaz that anger burns against him and his companions. He is also named in Genesis as the firstborn son of Esau.

    • Eliphaz, Bildad, Zophar — Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar are the three friends of Job who debate him in the Book of Job. They are usually named as the trio who visit Job while he is suffering. Elihu is sometimes added as another speaker, but the standard set of Job’s friends is the trio named above.

    • Zophar — Zophar is one of Job’s three comforters, alongside Eliphaz and Bildad, and is described as a Nahamathite.

    • The land of Uz — The land of Uz is the homeland given for Job in the opening of the biblical Book of Job. It is a traditional scriptural place-name rather than a securely identified historical location.

• Kings of Judah
  • Jehoshaphat — Jehoshaphat was a king of Judah, son of Asa and father of Jehoram, remembered as a reform-minded ruler. He allied with Ahab of Israel and fought at Ramoth-gilead, though the clues also stress his religious reforms and the later association of his name with the Valley of Jehoshaphat.
• Biblical canon

  • deuterocanonical — Deuterocanonical is the adjective for books included in the Roman Catholic canon but not in the Hebrew Bible. It is often used for the biblical apocryphal books, reflecting that they were not originally accepted everywhere as canonical.

  • deuterocanonical books — The deuterocanonical books are the scriptural books accepted in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles but rejected from the Hebrew Bible and by most Protestants. This collection includes Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, and 1 Maccabees.

    • Book of Judith — The Book of Judith is a deuterocanonical text in which the widow Judith seduces and then beheads the Assyrian general Holofernes. It is preserved in Catholic and Orthodox Bibles but not in most Protestant canons.

      • Holofernes — Holofernes is the Assyrian general in the Book of Judith who invades Bethulia under Nebuchadnezzar. He is famously beheaded by Judith after she gains access to his camp.

      • Judith — Judith is the biblical heroine who seduces and then beheads Holofernes to save her people. She is a favorite subject in art, where clues often point to Gentileschi, Klimt, Caravaggio, Mantegna, and Cranach, or to variants such as Judith Beheading Holofernes. The story is also preserved in the Book of Judith and in related homiletic and poetic traditions.

      • Judith beheading Holofernes — Judith beheading Holofernes is the biblical scene in which Judith kills the Assyrian general Holofernes and, in many depictions, holds his severed head. It was painted famously by Caravaggio and Artemisia Gentileschi, and also appears in works by Mantegna, Klimt, and others. The scene often includes Judith’s maidservant and emphasizes the violent reversal of power.

      • the head of Holofernes — The head of Holofernes is the severed trophy taken by Judith after she kills the Assyrian general in the biblical Book of Judith. In art and literature it is a standard emblem of Judith’s victory, often shown being carried or displayed after Holofernes has been slain.

      • Bethulia — Bethulia is the besieged town in the Book of Judith. It is the city whose deliverance follows Judith’s beheading of Holofernes.

    • Book of Tobit — An apocryphal or Deuterocanonical biblical narrative about the righteous Jew Tobit, exiled to Nineveh, his son Tobias, and the angel Raphael. Tobit performs acts of charity and burial, is later blinded, and the story follows Tobias’s journey with a fish, the healing of Tobit’s sight through fish gall, and the defeat of the demon Asmodeus, who had killed Sarah’s seven husbands so Tobias can marry her.

      • Tobias — Tobias, also called Tobiah, is the son of Tobit in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit. He travels to Media, receives guidance from the angel Raphael in disguise, and uses fish remedies to heal his father and marry Sarah.

      • Tobit — An apocryphal or deuterocanonical book named for a righteous Israelite from the tribe of Naphtali. It centers on Tobit, Anna, and their son Tobias before the fall of Nineveh; Tobias journeys east, marries Sarah, and is aided by the angel Raphael in defeating the demon Asmodeus. Raphael also heals Tobit’s blindness with fish gall.

      • Sara — Sara is the woman who married Tobias after he drove away the demon Asmodeus, who had killed her previous suitors. The name also appears as a female given name in song titles and other pop-culture contexts.

    • Books of Maccabees — The Books of Maccabees are Jewish historical and religious texts, with the first two accepted as canonical by Catholics and Orthodox Christians. They recount the revolt against Antiochus IV and the events behind Hanukkah, including the rededication of the Temple and the story of Nicanor’s defeat.

    • Ecclesiasticus — Ecclesiasticus, also called Sirach or the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, is a wisdom book in the Apocrypha. It is attributed to Jesus ben Sira and was translated into Greek by the author’s grandson.

    • The Book of Baruch — The Book of Baruch is an apocryphal/deuterocanonical work traditionally associated with Jeremiah’s secretary Baruch. It includes a confession of sin, poems of lamentation, and the Letter of Jeremiah in some canons.
• Biblical lands
  • Midian — Midian is a biblical land associated with Moses, who lived there after fleeing Egypt and meeting the priest Jethro. It is also linked to the Midianites in Exodus, Judges, and Numbers, where they appear as nomads and enemies of Israel.
• Biblical peoples

  • Gibeonites — The Gibeonites were a Canaanite people who deceived Joshua into making a peace treaty with them. In the Bible they become woodcutters and water carriers for Israel and are also linked with the cities of Gibeon and nearby towns.

  • Magog — Magog is a biblical name that appears among the descendants of Japheth in Genesis. It also appears in apocalyptic texts paired with Gog, and sometimes refers to a distant northern land.

  • Israelites — The Israelites are the ancient people led by Moses out of Egypt in the Hebrew Bible. They are associated with Sinai traditions, the Exodus, the worship of Yahweh, and later the kingdoms centered on Jerusalem.

• Books
  • Ruth and Esther — Ruth and Esther are the only books of the Old Testament named for women.
• Torah scrolls

  • yad — A yad is the pointer used to read a Torah scroll without touching it directly. Torah scrolls contain the Five Books of Moses, are kept in the aron kodesh, and are used in synagogue and bar mitzvah settings.

  • Sefer Torah — A handwritten Jewish scroll containing the Hebrew text of the first five books of Moses (the Torah). It is stored in the synagogue ark, handled with a yad rather than touched directly, read aloud in the weekly cycle, and treated with special reverence and careful preservation; it is also carried or paraded on Simchat Torah.

• Israelite tribes
  • Ten Lost Tribes of Israel — The Ten Lost Tribes of Israel are the tribes exiled from the Kingdom of Israel by the Neo-Assyrians in antiquity. Various groups have claimed descent from them, including the Bnei Menashe and some Pashtun tribes.
• Biblical books
  • Ezra and Nehemiah — Ezra and Nehemiah are biblical books that describe the return from Babylonian exile and the rebuilding of Jewish life in Jerusalem. In Jewish tradition they can be counted together as a single book.
• Biblical kings

  • King Solomon — King Solomon, also called Jedidiah or Sulayman, was the biblical king of Israel renowned for wisdom, the building of the First Temple, and the judgment that proposed dividing a baby in two. He is also the central figure in later magical and grimoire traditions, including the Lesser Key of Solomon and the Ars Goetia.

  • Solomon — Solomon is the biblical king of Israel known for wisdom, the Judgment of Solomon, and the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem. Quizbowl clues also point to his Islamic counterpart Sulayman, his ring of command over jinn, and the Queen of Sheba.

  • Jeroboam — Jeroboam was the northern Israelite king whose reign is linked to the schism of the monarchy and to shrines at Bethel and Dan. Quizbowl clues often attach to him the story of the golden calves, the idol Aaron made at Sinai, and later biblical condemnations of idolatry.

• Biblical mountains
  • Mt. Sinai — Mount Sinai is the biblical mountain in Egypt traditionally associated with Moses receiving the Ten Commandments. It is also called Mount Horeb and is linked in legend to St. Catherine of Alexandria.
• Hebrew Bible prophets
  • Jeremiah — A major Hebrew prophet associated with the fall of Judah and the Book of Jeremiah and Lamentations. He is remembered as the “Weeping Prophet” for his lamenting, resistant style of prophecy and for dramatic symbolic acts such as wearing a yoke. His conflicts with Hananiah, his imprisonment under Zedekiah, and his scribe Baruch are also associated with him.
    • Baruch ben Neriah — Baruch ben Neriah was the scribe of Jeremiah and is credited with recording the prophet’s words in the Book of Jeremiah. Jewish and apocryphal traditions also associate him with a separate Book of Baruch.
• Patriarchs

  • Jacob and Esau — Jacob and Esau are the twin sons of Isaac in Genesis, with Jacob stealing Esau’s birthright and later reconciling with him.

  • Esau — Esau is the elder son of Isaac and twin brother of Jacob, remembered for selling his birthright for lentil stew. He becomes the ancestral figure of the Edomites and is often identified by his hairiness, Hittite wives, and the stolen blessing episode.
    • his birthright — In the Bible, Esau trades away his birthright, also called his firstborn status, for a meal of stew. That bargain is the source of the phrase “a mess of pottage.”
  • Reuben — Reuben was the firstborn son of Jacob and Leah, and the eponymous ancestor of one of the tribes of Israel. He is remembered for sleeping with Bilhah and for intervening in the plot against Joseph.
• Torah commandments
  • 613 mitzvot — The 613 mitzvot are the traditional Jewish commandments attributed to Rabbi Simlai. They are counted in the Torah and are a basic marker of Jewish law, though observance alone does not determine Jewish identity.
• Tribes of Israel

  • Naphtali — Naphtali is one of Jacob’s sons by Bilhah and a tribe of Israel. Biblical clues often identify it as the tribe associated with Barak and with the meaning “my struggle.”

  • Ephraim — Ephraim is the biblical tribe descended from Joseph’s son, often paired with Manasseh and invoked in later religious and literary references. Quizbowl clues link it to Jeroboam’s revolt, Ezekiel’s valley of dry bones, and the Book of Mormon’s phrase “stick of Ephraim.”

  • Judah and Benjamin — Judah and Benjamin are the Israelite tribes traditionally said not to have been scattered in the Assyrian exile. They remained under the leadership associated with the southern kingdom after the division of Israel.

  • Tribe of Dan — The Tribe of Dan was one of the tribes of Israel descended from Jacob and Bilhah’s son Dan. Biblical traditions link it to Samson, the conquest of Laish, and the story of Micah’s idol.

• Biblical and apocryphal figures
  • Azazel — Azazel is the name attached to the scapegoat ritual of Yom Kippur in Leviticus and to a rebellious figure in later Jewish and Islamic traditions. Quizbowl clues may also mention the Book of Enoch, where Azazel teaches metalworking and cosmetics.
• Biblical Animals
  • rams — Rams are male sheep, and the animal also appears in biblical sacrifice language and in the making of the shofar. The same word is a common sports nickname, but the religion clues center on sacrificial and ritual uses of the sheep.
• Biblical figures

  • Eve — Eve is the biblical first woman, wife of Adam, and mother of Cain, Abel, and Seth. Clues also point to her as a film title, especially All About Eve and The Lady Eve.

  • Jesse — Jesse is the Bethlehemite father of David and grandson of Ruth and Obed. In biblical symbolism he is often shown as the stump from which a branch grows, linking him to messianic imagery in Isaiah and to the genealogy of Jesus.

  • Mammon — Mammon is the biblical and literary figure associated with greed and material wealth. He appears in Paradise Lost as a fallen angel who looks downward at the gold streets of Heaven’s memory, and his name is also used for Sir Epicure Mammon in The Alchemist.

  • Nimrod — Nimrod is the biblical hunter and ruler associated with Babel, Shinar, and the Tower of Babel, later used as a byword for a stupid person. In music clues, the name most famously refers to the ninth Enigma Variation by Elgar, written as a tribute to Augustus Jaeger.

  • Queen of Sheba — The Queen of Sheba is the biblical and legendary ruler associated with southwestern Arabia who visits Solomon, bearing spices, gold, and precious stones, and testing him with riddles. Later traditions identify her as Makeda, Bilqis, Saba, or Balkis; the Kebra Nagast makes her the mother of the Ethiopian royal line and ancestor of Menelek of the Abyssinians, while Arabic tradition tells of her glass-floor encounter and hairy legs. She also appears in art and literature, including a Handel oratorio and paintings by Claude and Veronese.

  • Simeon — Simeon is a biblical name borne by Jacob’s second son by Leah and by the tribe of Simeon. The name also appears for Simeon the devout man who blessed the infant Jesus in the Temple.

  • Zechariah — Zechariah is the priest and father of John the Baptist who was struck mute after receiving Gabriel’s announcement that Elizabeth would bear a son. The same name also belongs to the prophetic book linked to Matthew’s citation and to the prophet said to have been killed between the temple and the altar.

• Biblical names
  • Ebenezer — Ebenezer is a Hebrew name meaning “stone of help,” first associated with a site in First Samuel. It also appears as the given name of Ebenezer Scrooge and as the name of churches and hymns.
• Biblical places
  • Bethel — Bethel is the biblical place-name meaning “house of God,” associated with Jacob’s dream and later reused for churches, colleges, and towns. It appears in traditions ranging from Genesis to modern American religious institutions and the town that hosted Woodstock.
• Biblical plants
  • fig — A fig is a biblical fruit linked to Jesus’s only destructive miracle, when he causes a fig tree to wither. It also titles Edna St. Vincent Millay’s “First Fig,” whose famous opening line appears in A Few Figs from Thistles.
• Biblical wisdom literature
  • Book of Proverbs — This biblical wisdom book contains sayings attributed to Solomon and ends with the famous poem about a woman of valor. It includes the line that the fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom and the passage about a dog returning to its vomit.
    • Proverbs — The Old Testament book of wise sayings and short moral observations, associated with Solomon. It includes the sayings of Solomon, the words of Agur, and the advice of Lemuel’s mother. Notable sayings include “the fear of God is the beginning of wisdom” and the warning that pride comes before a fall.
• Characters

  • Joab — Joab was the commander of David’s army in the Hebrew Bible and a notorious figure for killing Abner, Amasa, and Absalom. He remains a frequent answer on clues about David’s military commander and the man executed by Benaiah.

  • Judah — Judah is the son of Jacob whose tribe gave its name to the kingdom of Judah and, by extension, to the word Jew. He sells Joseph, fathers Perez and Zerah through Tamar, and receives the blessing of the lion’s whelp.

  • Zipporah — Zipporah was Moses’s Midianite wife and the daughter of Jethro. She is identified as the mother of Gershom and Eliezer and appears in the story of Moses meeting her while defending her and her sisters.

• David narrative
  • Bathsheba — Bathsheba is the woman whose relationship with David led to the death of Uriah the Hittite and the birth of Solomon. She is often shown bathing on a rooftop in art, making her a standard biblical clue tied to David’s adultery and the royal line of Israel.
• Davidic succession
  • Adonijah — Adonijah was a son of David who tried to seize the throne and was defeated when Bathsheba and Nathan backed Solomon’s succession. Solomon later forbade him from marrying Abishag, and Adonijah was finally killed by Benaiah after another attempt to gain power.
• Figures

  • Eli — Eli is the high priest in Samuel’s early story, the man who first recognizes the boy’s call from God at Shiloh. After hearing that the Ark had been captured and his sons killed, he falls backward and dies from a broken neck.

  • Miriam — Miriam is the sister of Moses and Aaron in the Hebrew Bible, associated with the Song of the Sea and with the episode in which she is punished with leprosy for criticizing Moses’s marriage. She also appears as the girl who helps save the infant Moses by watching the basket in the Nile.

• Former Prophets
  • Book of Joshua — The Book of Joshua recounts the Israelite conquest of Canaan under Joshua after Moses’ death. It tells how Joshua succeeded Moses and led the Israelites into Canaan, and includes the fall of Jericho, Rahab’s aid to the spies, the standstill of the sun, the defeat at Ai, and the covenant with the Gibeonites.

    • Gilgal — Gilgal is a biblical site where Joshua had the Israelite men circumcised with flint knives. It is also the place where Saul was crowned king after the victory over Nahash and where Samuel is said to have made sacrifices.

    • Joshua — Joshua is the biblical successor to Moses who led the Israelites into Canaan and took Jericho with marching priests and trumpets. Other associated details include the stopping of the sun at Gibeon, the spies hidden by Rahab, and the conquest of Ai.

      • Joshua, son of Nun — Joshua, son of Nun, succeeded Moses and led the Israelites into Canaan after the wilderness wandering. He is associated with the fall of Jericho and the miracle in which the sun stood still.

      • Rahab — Rahab is the woman of Jericho who hid Joshua’s spies and spared her household by hanging a scarlet cord from her window. In later biblical tradition she is remembered as a prostitute who aided the Israelite conquest of Jericho.

    • Walls of Jericho — The Walls of Jericho are the biblical fortifications said to have fallen after Joshua’s Israelites marched around the city and blew rams’ horns. They are associated with the conquest narrative in the Book of Joshua and with the archaeological site of Tell es-Sultan.
• Israelite figures
  • Caleb — Caleb is the Israelite spy who, with Joshua, urged Moses to enter Canaan and later received Hebron as his inheritance. In Judges, he is also linked to driving out the sons of Anak and to the offer of his daughter’s hand to the conqueror of Debir.
• Kings
  • Saul — Saul is the first king of Israel in the Hebrew Bible, later supplanted by David. Quizbowl clues center on his encounter with the Witch of Endor, his jealousy of David after the women’s song praising tens of thousands, his rash sacrifice before Samuel arrived, and his death by suicide at Mount Gilboa.
• Prophets

  • Amos — Amos is the Hebrew prophet associated with visions of locusts and fire and with the call for justice to roll down like waters. He denounced Israel during Jeroboam II’s reign, clashed with the priest Amaziah at Bethel, and is remembered for his emphasis on social righteousness.

  • Elisha — Elisha was the prophet and successor of Elijah in the Hebrew Bible. He multiplies oil for a widow, heals Naaman by telling him to wash in the Jordan, curses mocking youths so two bears attack them, and is also associated with Gehazi’s leprosy and the revival of the Shunammite woman’s son.

  • Ezekiel — Ezekiel is the Old Testament prophet whose namesake book contains the visions of wheels within wheels, the valley of dry bones, and the oracles against Gog and Magog. He is also the prophet who acts out symbolic signs, including eating a scroll and lying on his side to warn of Jerusalem’s destruction.
    • Ezekiel’s Temple — Ezekiel’s Temple is the visionary temple described in chapters 40 through 48 of Ezekiel, with measurements given in cubits. Jonathan Z. Smith discusses it as an imaginary sacred structure in To Take Place.
  • Four Major Biblical Prophets — The four major biblical prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. They are commonly grouped as the major prophets in the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament.
• Flood narrative
  • Deluge — The Deluge is the biblical flood narrative in which Noah survives with his family and animals. It also names the Swedish-Polish conflict known as the Potop, or Deluge.
• Genesis patriarchs
  • Laban — Laban is the uncle of Jacob and brother of Rebekah in Genesis, and he tricked Jacob into marrying Leah before Rachel. Jacob then worked fourteen years for him in Haran, making Laban a recurring figure in the patriarchal family narratives.
• Jacob’s sons
  • Zebulon — Zebulon is the biblical son of Jacob whose tribe was said to settle near the northern coast of Israel. The name also belongs to Zebulon Pike, the American explorer and officer remembered for leading expeditions in the Southwest and for Pike’s Peak.
• Joseph’s sons
  • Ephraim and Manasseh — Ephraim and Manasseh are the sons of Joseph in Genesis, and the tribes descended from them are the two tribes of Israel not named directly after Jacob’s twelve sons. Jacob blesses them with his crossed arms, giving the younger Ephraim the favored right hand.
• Sons of Jacob
  • Joseph and Benjamin — Joseph and Benjamin are the two sons of Jacob and Rachel in Genesis. They later became patriarchs associated with the tribes of Israel.
• House of David
  • Amnon — Amnon is David’s eldest son, best known in the biblical narrative for raping his half-sister Tamar. Absalom later avenged Tamar by having Amnon killed at a banquet.
• Scrolls and Books
  • The Megillah — The Megillah is the scroll read during Purim containing the story of Esther, Haman, and Mordecai. The term simply means “the scroll” in Hebrew.
• Elisha cycle
  • Gehazi — Gehazi was Elisha’s servant, remembered for taking gifts from Naaman and being cursed with Naaman’s leprosy. Biblical and rabbinic traditions also connect him with the Shunammite woman and with exclusion from the world to come.
• Moses’ family
  • Aaron and Miriam — Aaron and Miriam are the older siblings of Moses in the Hebrew Bible. Aaron is associated with the Golden Calf episode, while Miriam is the sister punished with leprosy after challenging Moses’ authority.
• Moses’s family
  • Gershom — Gershom was one of Moses and Zipporah’s sons, with a name associated with Moses’s status as a stranger in a foreign land. In Exodus, Zipporah circumcises him to avert divine punishment against Moses.
• Psalms

  • Psalm 119 — Psalm 119 is the longest chapter in the Bible, arranged as an acrostic on the Hebrew alphabet. It is a meditation on divine law and includes lines such as “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.”

  • Psalm 23 — Psalm 23 is the biblical psalm that opens with “The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want.” It is one of the best-known passages in the King James Bible and Hebrew Bible, describing God as a shepherd who provides guidance and care. The psalm includes the image of walking through the valley of the shadow of death and ends with the promise that goodness and mercy will follow the speaker all the days of life; it also contains the line “my cup runneth over.”
    • My cup runneth over — “My cup runneth over” is a phrase from Psalm 23, usually quoted after the line about being anointed with oil. It closes the verse in which goodness and mercy are said to follow the speaker all the days of his life.

  • Selah — Selah is a Hebrew word found throughout the Psalms and in Habakkuk. Its meaning is uncertain, though it is often treated as a liturgical or musical pause.

  • the shadow of death — The phrase “the shadow of death” comes from Psalm 23, where the speaker fears no evil while walking through the valley of the shadow of death. It is also the title of a famous painting by Holman Hunt and is quoted in “Gangsta’s Paradise”.

Jewish Festivals, Prayer, Law, and Ritual

• Shabbat — the weekly day of rest from Friday sunset to Saturday night, commemorating God’s rest on the seventh day of creation. It is marked by lighting candles, reciting Kiddush, serving challah at the Friday night meal, and ending with Havdalah. Traditional observance forbids the 39 melachot, or categories of melakhah, during the day.

  • Havdalah — Havdalah is the Jewish ceremony that marks the end of Shabbat and the start of the new week. It is performed over wine with a braided candle and fragrant spices, and its name means separation.

  • Saturday — Saturday is the day of the week associated with the Jewish Sabbath and with Seventh-day Adventist worship. It also appears in the titles of cultural works such as Saturday Night Fever and Ian McEwan’s novel Saturday.

• High Holidays — Rosh Hashanah (Jewish New Year) and Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), the most solemn days of the Jewish calendar.
  • Neilah — Neilah is the closing service of Yom Kippur, marking the end of the fast. It is associated with the Ark being open and ends with the blowing of the shofar.
• Rosh Hashanah — the Jewish New Year, observed on 1–2 Tishrei, beginning the Ten Days of Repentance that culminate in Yom Kippur. Its central observance is hearing the shofar; traditional practice omits the blowing on Shabbat. Apples dipped in honey express hope for a sweet year. New-year greetings, judgment, and repentance belong to this festival, rather than Purim’s Esther narrative.⁸ It is the first of the High Holy Days and begins the Ten Days of Repentance, also called the Ten Days of Awe, before Yom Kippur. Traditional greetings include shanah tovah, and some observances emphasize tashlikh and festive foods such as apples and honey.
  • apples and honey — Apples and honey are the classic Rosh Hashanah foods eaten for a sweet new year. The pairing is especially common in Ashkenazi practice and is among the holiday’s best-known symbolic customs.

• Tashlich / Tashlikh — a new-year prayer custom performed beside a body of water, symbolically casting away sins through the image in Micah 7:19. It is commonly associated with Rosh Hashanah’s first afternoon, with timing adjusted for Shabbat and local custom. It is a waterside prayer ceremony, distinct from immersion in a mikveh.⁹

• Passover (Pesach) — commemorates the Exodus from Egypt; the Seder is the ritual meal with the Haggadah as its text.

• Hanukkah — the Festival of Lights; commemorates the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem (c. 165 BCE) after the Maccabean revolt; an eight-day holiday. It is associated with the miracle of the oil lasting eight days, begins on the 25th of Kislev, and is marked by lighting the nine-branched menorah with a shamash, reciting Al Ha-Nissim, spinning the dreidel, and eating fried foods such as latkes and sufganiyot.

  • dreidels — A dreidel is the four-sided spinning top used in Hanukkah games for gelt. Its Hebrew letters stand for the phrase meaning that a great miracle happened there, and one variant song calls it a clay top that must be dry and ready.

  • eight days — Eight days or eight nights is the traditional length of Hanukkah and appears in several religious chronology clues. The set also invokes Shinto mourning rites, Buddhist arhat lore, circumcision timing, and the infancy narratives of Jesus.

• Shofar — the ram’s horn blown as a musical instrument in Jewish ritual; sounded on Rosh Hashanah and at the close of Yom Kippur; its blasts carry symbolic meanings including a call to repentance, the memory of the binding of Isaac (where a ram was substituted), and the messianic era; the four traditional blasts are tekiah, shevarim, teruah, and tekiah gedolah. It is also associated with the story of Jericho.
  • shevarim — Shevarim is the shofar blast of three broken, sighing notes used in Rosh Hashanah services. It appears in sequences such as tashat, where it is paired with other shofar calls like tekiah and teruah.

• Menorah — the seven-branched golden candelabrum that stood in the Tabernacle and Temple in Jerusalem; one of the oldest and most recognized symbols of Judaism; distinct from the Hanukkiah (nine-branched candelabrum used specifically during Hanukkah, with eight lights plus the shamash helper candle). A major symbol of Judaism. A nine-branched version, the hanukkiah, is lit during Hanukkah with a shamash candle and recalls the miracle of the oil.

• Dreidel — a four-sided spinning top used in a Hanukkah game; each face bears a Hebrew letter: Nun, Gimel, Heh, Shin (or Peh in Israel), standing for Nes Gadol Haya Sham (“A great miracle happened there”) or Po (“here”) for the Israeli variant. It is used in a traditional Hanukkah game in which the spin determines whether players take, add, or lose part of the pot.

• Matzo (Matzah) — unleavened flatbread eaten during Passover, commemorating the haste of the Israelites’ departure from Egypt before their bread could rise; during the eight days of Passover, all leavened products (chametz) are forbidden; the Seder plate includes three matzot, and the afikomen (a piece hidden and searched for by children) concludes the Seder meal.

• Chuppah — the wedding canopy under which a Jewish marriage ceremony (kiddushin) is performed; symbolizes the new home the couple will share; traditionally an open-sided canopy (or a cloth held aloft by poles) to recall the hospitality of Abraham’s tent. It may be made from a tallit, and it is where the marriage rites take place.

• Kippah (Kippot) — the small head covering worn by Jewish men (and in egalitarian communities, women) as a sign of reverence for God and awareness of divine presence above; also called yarmulke (Yiddish); not explicitly mandated in the Torah but established by rabbinic custom.

• Mikveh — the Jewish ritual bath used for purification; immersion is required for conversion to Judaism, before marriage, by women after menstruation (in Orthodox practice), before Yom Kippur in some traditions, and for immersing new utensils; must contain a minimum quantity of natural water (mayim hayyim, living water) meeting strict halakhic standards. Also spelled mikvah; plural mikvot. The immersion rite is called tevilah.

• Bar Mitzvah / Bat Mitzvah — the coming-of-age ceremony marking when a Jewish boy (bar mitzvah, at age 13) or girl (bat mitzvah, at age 12 or 13 depending on tradition) assumes responsibility for observing the commandments; the child reads from the Torah during a synagogue service; the Reform and Conservative movements fully egalitarianized the bat mitzvah in the 20th century.

• Kosher (Kashrut) — the Jewish dietary laws (kashrut) derived from the Torah; key rules include the prohibition on pork and shellfish, the requirement that permitted animals be slaughtered in the prescribed manner (shechita), and the separation of meat and dairy products; food meeting these standards is called kosher (“fit” or “proper”).

• Shechita — the Jewish (and Islamic, in its parallel form dhabiha) method of ritual slaughter; requires a swift, uninterrupted cut to the throat with a sharp blade by a trained slaughterer (shochet), intended to minimize animal suffering and render the meat permissible under dietary law.

• Sukkot, Shavuot, and other festivals — the Shalosh Regalim (three pilgrimage festivals): Pesach (Passover), Shavuot (Weeks, celebrating the giving of the Torah), and Sukkot (Tabernacles, commemorating the wilderness wandering); also Purim (Book of Esther) and Tisha B’Av (mourning the Temple’s destruction).

• Purim — a Jewish festival commemorating the deliverance narrated in the Book of Esther: Esther and Mordecai foil Haman’s planned destruction of the Jews of the Persian empire. Its name refers to the lots Haman cast. It is normally observed on 14 Adar, or Adar II in a leap year; Shushan Purim, observed in Jerusalem and qualifying ancient walled cities, falls on the fifteenth. Customs include reading the Megillah, disguises, hamantaschen, and noise at Haman’s name.¹⁰¹¹ Customs also include the public reading of the Megillah, exchanging mishloach manot, giving matanot la’evyonim, using noisemakers such as graggers/ra’ashanim, and staging Purim spiels.

  • mishloach manot — Mishloach manot are the Purim gifts of food and drink sent to friends and relatives. They are part of the holiday’s public sharing obligations alongside charity and festive meals.

  • wearing a costume — Purim is the Jewish holiday that commemorates the events of the Book of Esther, and it is associated with costumes, masks, and other forms of disguise. A common clue pair links it to Halloween-style dressing up and to mishloach manot, the exchange of gift baskets.

• Mishloach manot and matanot la’evyonim — two distinct Purim obligations: mishloach manot sends at least two food portions to another person; matanot la’evyonim gives assistance to at least two poor people. They accompany the Megillah reading and festive meal. A food basket shared with a friend and charity for people in need point to different practices, even though both involve giving.¹²

• Sukkot / Feast of Tabernacles — the seven-day Jewish festival on 15–21 Tishrei, associated with harvest and God’s protection of the Israelites in the wilderness. Meals and other activities take place in a temporary sukkah; the four species are another central observance. Shemini Atzeret follows the seven days, with Simchat Torah on the same day in Israel and the following day in traditional diaspora observance.¹³

• Sukkah and s’chach / schach — the temporary booth used during Sukkot and its plant-material roof covering. Suitable roofing material grew from the ground and has been detached from it; branches or reeds are typical examples. The roof’s ritual requirements distinguish a sukkah from an ordinary room or a tent with a manufactured waterproof roof.¹⁴

• Four species / arba minim — the Sukkot ritual plants: a lulav (palm frond), etrog (citron), hadasim (myrtle branches), and aravot (willow branches). The palm, myrtle, and willow are bound together and held with the citron. A citron and palm identify this practice; the etrog is not a lemon and the lulav is not the hut.¹⁵

• Ushpizin — the seven ancestral guests symbolically welcomed into a sukkah in a custom associated with the Zohar: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Aaron, and David. A different guest leads each day; traditions differ in ordering Joseph relative to Moses and Aaron. The invitation expresses hospitality through the Sukkot setting.¹⁶

• Joseph Karo’s Shulchan Aruch — the authoritative code of Jewish law compiled by Sephardic rabbi Joseph Karo (1563); together with Ashkenazic glosses by Moses Isserles (HaMapah), it became the universal halakhic standard for observant Jews.

• Menorah — A menorah or hanukiyah is the nine-branched lamp used for Hanukkah. It has one candle for each night of the festival plus a shamash used to light the others.

• Jewish holidays

  • Chanukkah — Chanukkah is the eight-day Jewish festival commemorating the Maccabean rededication of the Temple and the miracle of the oil. It commemorates the Maccabean revolt against Antiochus IV and the oil lasting eight days, is celebrated by lighting the menorah over eight nights, and is associated with the dreidel game, sufganiyot, and the shammash.

  • Shemini Atzeret — Shemini Atzeret is the Jewish holiday that follows Sukkot and is often paired with Simchat Torah. It includes the prayer for rain and is called the eighth day of assembly.

• Jewish holidays and observances
  • Rosh Chodesh — Rosh Chodesh is the Jewish observance marking the start of each new lunar month. It is associated with the new moon, and some months have one- or two-day observances depending on the calendar.
• Jewish prayer
  • Amidah (ah-mee-DAH) — The Amidah is the Jewish standing prayer recited daily and also on Shabbat in a special Mussaf version. Its name refers to the act of standing and to the traditional count of its blessings.
• Jewish wedding — The traditional Jewish wedding ceremony takes place under a chuppah and includes the seven blessings, or sheva brachot. It traditionally proceeds in two stages, erusin and nissuin, with a ketubah signed beforehand and a glass broken at the end. If the marriage is dissolved, it ends in a get.
  • a glass — At a Jewish wedding, the groom smashes a glass at the end of the ceremony. The act commemorates the destruction of the Temple even at a moment of joy.
• Jewish wedding customs
  • breaking a glass — In Jewish wedding custom, the groom traditionally breaks a glass, often with his foot. The act is commonly explained as a remembrance of the destruction of the Temple.
• Jewish ritual clothing
  • kittel — A kittel, also called a sargenes, is a white linen robe worn by some married Ashkenazi Jewish men on Yom Kippur. It can also be used as a burial robe.
• Jewish festivals

  • Sukkoth — Sukkoth is the Jewish harvest festival of booths, celebrated on the fifteenth of Tishri with dwelling in sukkot and carrying the Four Species. Its observances include Hoshana Rabbah, Chol HaMo’ed, and the transitions to Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah.

  • Chol HaMo’ed — Chol HaMo’ed refers to the intermediate weekdays of a Jewish festival, especially the days between the opening and closing days of Passover. These days retain a semi-festive character while ordinary work restrictions are relaxed in part.

• Purim customs
  • graggers — A gragger is a Purim noisemaker shaken during the Megillah reading to drown out Haman’s name. It is also called a ra’ashan, and in some places people use other customs such as writing Haman’s name on their shoes.
• Jewish law codes

  • Mishneh Torah — The Mishneh Torah is Maimonides’s great code of Jewish law, arranged in fourteen books. It systematizes halakha and is also called the Yad ha-Hazakah, or Book of the Strong Hand.

  • Shulchan Aruch — The Shulchan Aruch is Joseph Karo’s influential codification of Jewish law, literally meaning “Set Table.” It was later supplemented by Moses Isserles and remains a central reference for halakhic rulings in both Sephardic and Ashkenazic practice. It is often cited in discussions of eruvin and the legal conditions for creating an eruv.

• Jewish modesty laws — Jewish modesty laws, or tzniut, regulate outward expressions of humility in dress and conduct. Common examples include rules about modest clothing, hair covering, shomer negiah, and separation in some synagogue contexts.

• Shema Yisrael — The central Jewish declaration of monotheism, beginning “Hear, O Israel: the Lord is our God, the Lord is One.” It is recited in daily prayer, especially morning and evening, and often before sleep or death. Its first paragraph, the V’ahavta, commands binding these words on the hand and between the eyes, linking it to tefillin; in Orthodox practice it also appears in mezuzot.

• Kosher dietary laws
  • pareve — Pareve is the kosher category for foods containing neither meat nor dairy. Such foods may be eaten with either meat or dairy meals.

Rabbinic Learning, Philosophy, and Mysticism

• Talmud — the body of rabbinic literature comprising the Mishnah (codification of oral law, compiled c. 200 CE by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi) and the Gemara (commentary on the Mishnah). Two Talmuds: the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE) and the Babylonian Talmud (c. 500 CE); the Babylonian is more authoritative. It is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and includes legal discussion, stories, and ethical teachings. It exists in both Jerusalem and Babylonian recensions.

  • Gemara — The Gemara is the Aramaic commentarial layer of the Talmud, paired with the Mishnah and consisting of rabbinic discussions and interpretations traditionally printed around the Mishnah on the page. Together with the Mishnah, it makes up the Talmud. It exists in Babylonian and Palestinian versions and was developed by the Amoraim.

  • Mishnah and Gemara — The Mishnah and the Gemara are the two main components of the Talmud. The Mishnah preserves early rabbinic law, while the Gemara is the later commentary and discussion built around it.

  • Rabbi Ashi — Rav Ashi was the rabbi associated with the redaction of the Babylonian Talmud and the reestablishment of the academy at Sura. Tradition credits him with revising the work over many decades.

  • Tosafot — Tosafot are medieval Talmudic commentaries placed opposite Rashi’s notes on the page. They were written by Rashi’s students, family members, and successors and are often printed in the outer margin of the Babylonian Talmud.

• Midrash — rabbinic interpretation of scripture, including both legal (halakhic) and narrative/homiletical (aggadic) forms. It is associated with classical Torah exposition and can include creative retellings of biblical material, such as explanations for Moses’s stutter or stories about Rachel and Akiva.

• Maimonides (Rambam) — Moses ben Maimon (1138–1204), a philosopher and codifier of Jewish law; his Guide for the Perplexed reconciles Aristotelian philosophy with Torah; his Mishneh Torah systematically codifies all of halakha; his Thirteen Principles of Faith represent his attempt to enumerate the essential dogmas of Judaism (including the belief in God’s unity, the divine origin of the Torah, and resurrection).

• Rashi — Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki (1040–1105), the most influential medieval commentator on the Torah and Talmud; his commentaries, written in northern France, are printed alongside the text in nearly all standard editions and remain the starting point for traditional Jewish study. Also called Rabbi Solomon ben Isaac, he was a French rabbi from Troyes; his glosses on the Bible and Talmud became the standard printed commentary, and the distinctive square script used for his commentaries is named Rashi script.

• Kabbalah — the Jewish mystical tradition; developed especially in 12th–13th century Provence and Spain; the Zohar (Book of Splendor) is its central text, attributed to Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai but largely composed by Moses de Leon in 13th-century Spain; teaches a theosophical system of ten divine attributes called sefirot. It is associated with hidden meanings in Scripture, especially in letters, words, and numbers, and its later Lurianic form emphasizes tzimtzum and the relationship between Ein Sof and creation. Later interpreters such as Isaac Luria and the Vilna Gaon are strongly associated with it.

  • Gershom Scholem — Gershom Scholem was the leading 20th-century scholar of Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah. His work Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism and his biography of Sabbatai Zevi helped revive academic interest in the subject, and he was closely associated with Walter Benjamin.

  • Lurianic Kabbalah
    • Isaac Luria — Isaac Luria was a sixteenth-century Jewish mystic and rabbi associated with Safed and the development of Lurianic Kabbalah. His teachings emphasized tzimtzum, the shattering of the vessels, tiqqun, and the trapping of divine sparks in qlippoth. His ideas were preserved chiefly by Chaim Vital (Hayyim Vital) and became foundational for later Lurianic Kabbalah.

  • Sefirot — The sefirot are the ten emanations or attributes of God in Kabbalah, often arranged on the Tree of Life. Lurianic Kabbalah presents them as vessels of divine light linked to the Ein Sof and to concepts such as tzimtzum and the shattered qliphoth.

  • sephirot — The sephirot are the ten emanations or attributes through which God is understood to act in Kabbalah. In Lurianic Kabbalah, they are linked to the breaking of the vessels and the structure of the divine realm.

  • tikkun — Tikkun is the Hebrew word behind tikkun olam, the Jewish ideal of repairing the world. In Kabbalah it also names the restoration that follows the shattering of the vessels and the freeing of divine sparks.

  • tzimtzum — Tzimtzum is the Lurianic Kabbalistic doctrine that God contracted divine light to make room for creation. The idea explains how finite existence and evil can arise within a world created by an infinite God.

• Zohar — the foundational Kabbalistic text; written mostly in Aramaic; presents mystical commentary on the Torah; attributed traditionally to Shimon bar Yochai but composed c. 1280s by Moses de Leon. Also known as Sefer ha-Zohar, it is written mostly in Aramaic and became the central mystical text of Kabbalah. It uses concepts such as Ein Sof and the sefirot, recounts Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai’s journey through Galilee, and was later interpreted by Isaac Luria.

• Hasidism — a Jewish revival movement founded by Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov (“Master of the Good Name,” c. 1700–1760) in 18th-century Ukraine/Poland; emphasizes joyful worship, prayer, and the accessibility of God to ordinary people; gave rise to dynastic courts of rebbes (charismatic leaders). Also spelled Chassidism; its communities are often organized around dynastic courts led by rebbes or tzaddikim, with major branches including Chabad-Lubavitch, Ger, Belz, and Satmar.

  • Ba’al Shem Tov — The Ba’al Shem Tov, born Yisrael ben Eliezer, was an 18th-century Eastern European mystic and the founder of Hasidic Judaism. He emphasized joyful worship, direct attachment to God, and the spiritual value of the material world, and was associated with opposition to asceticism and Jewish rationalism in favor of a more spiritual religious life. His followers became known as the Hasidim, and the movement later developed into Hasidic dynasties such as Chabad.

  • Tzadik — A tzadik is a righteous person in Hasidic Judaism who is thought to maintain a special union with God. The term shares a root with tzedakah, the Jewish obligation of charity.

• Chabad-Lubavitch — a branch of Hasidic Judaism founded by Shneur Zalman of Liadi, whose Tanya first appeared in 1796. Chabad abbreviates the Hebrew words for wisdom (chochmah), understanding (binah), and knowledge (da’at). Its teachings emphasize study and meditation as ways to internalize faith and guide emotion and action. The later rebbe Menachem Mendel Schneerson greatly expanded the movement’s international educational, religious, and social-service outreach through its network of emissaries and institutions.¹⁷ It is centered in Crown Heights and is known for outreach through emissaries and Mitzvah tanks.

  • Menachem Mendel Schneerson — Menachem Mendel Schneerson was the seventh Lubavitcher Rebbe and a major leader of Chabad-Lubavitch. He became a prominent messianic figure in modern Orthodox Judaism and is often discussed in relation to Jewish interpretations of suffering after the Holocaust.

  • Menachem Schneerson — Menachem Schneerson was the Lubavitcher Rebbe, the influential leader of the Chabad-Lubavitch Hasidic movement. Questions about him often mention his death in 1994 and the messianic hopes attached to his posthumous writings.

• Rabbinic Judaism

  • Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph — Rabbi Akiba ben Joseph was a major rabbinic authority who supported the revolt of Bar Kokhba and helped shape the Mishnah’s foundations. Tradition says he was executed under Hadrian after persecution for teaching Judaism.

  • Rabbi Akiva ben Joseph — Rabbi Akiva ben Joseph was a major early rabbinic authority who systematized Jewish law. He was executed by the Romans during the Bar Kokhba revolt and is remembered in traditions tied to Lag BaOmer.

  • Shammai — Shammai was the strict rabbinic contemporary of Hillel in early tannaitic Judaism. He is associated with the school that “binds” where Hillel’s school “looses,” as well as rulings on Hanukkah candles and grace after meals.

  • Judah Ha-Nasi — Judah ha-Nasi was the second-century rabbi known as “the Prince” and the editor of the Mishnah. He is also remembered for his reforms to the Jewish calendar and for traditions linking him with the Roman figure Antoninus.

  • Oral Torah — Oral Torah is the body of rabbinic interpretation and tradition contrasted with the Written Torah. It was collected in the Mishnah and expanded in the Talmud, and it is rejected by groups such as the Karaites.

    • the Mishnah — The Mishnah is the earliest major written compilation of Jewish oral law, organized into six orders or sedarim and later discussed in the Gemara. It includes tractates such as Berakhot and Pirkei Avot, the source of sayings about fencing in the law and the world standing on three things.
      • Sedarim — The sedarim are the six major divisions of the Mishnah and the Tosefta. They organize rabbinic material into broad subject areas such as Zeraim and Moed.
    • Tosefta — The Tosefta is a supplementary compilation of Jewish oral law that accompanies the Mishnah. It is traditionally linked to Rabbis Hiyya and Oshaiah and is treated as a major collection of baraita.
• Jewish commentators
  • Nachmanides — Nachmanides, also called Ramban, was a major medieval Spanish Jewish commentator and Kabbalist. He is especially known for the Disputation of Barcelona and for a Torah commentary that engages closely with Rashi and the Aggadah.
• Jewish mysticism

  • Kabbala — Kabbalah is a Jewish mystical tradition built around symbolic interpretation of the Hebrew alphabet, the sephirot, and sacred texts such as the Zohar and Sefer Yetzirah. It became especially influential in later Hasidic and Lurianic thought.

  • Hebrew letters — In Jewish mysticism, Hebrew letters are treated as creative elements, assigned numerical values in gematria and grouped in the Sefer Yetzirah as mother, double, and simple letters. They also appear in mezuzah cases, tefillin, the tetragrammaton, and the dreidel.

• Jewish philosophy
  • The Star of Redemption — Franz Rosenzweig’s The Star of Redemption is a theological work that treats God, world, and man as its central terms. Its title image links Judaism and Christianity through a star whose center and outer points carry symbolic meaning, and Rosenzweig presented it as part of his ‘new thinking.’
• Jewish education
  • yeshivas — Yeshivas are Jewish schools devoted to Torah and Talmud study. The clues point to institutions organized around traditional rabbinic learning, including modern divisions such as ketana, mesivta, and kollel.

• Kabala — Kabbalah is the Jewish mystical tradition often treated as esoteric wisdom or hidden religious teaching. It is associated with texts such as the Book of Brightness and the Book of Creation and with later Hasidic interest.

• The Kabbalah — The Kabbalah is a major tradition of Jewish mysticism centered on divine emanation, the sefirot, and texts such as the Zohar. It is often described as an esoteric system that developed in medieval Jewish thought and was later revived in new forms.

• gematria — Gematria is the Jewish numerological system that assigns numerical values to Hebrew letters. It is used in Kabbalistic interpretation to find hidden connections in words, phrases, and scriptural texts. Clues often mention that chai equals 18 and that lamed-vav equals 36.

Christianity

Follow Christian origins, traditions, doctrines, and practices.

Christianity

• Christianity — A monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. It became the official religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine and is often associated with early Roman persecution, St. Helena, the spread of the faith through Aksum, and literary allusions to Christ’s resurrection. Clues may also point to its spread in China, Ethiopia, and Japan, as well as debates over terminology and missionary activity.

  • Akurinu — Akurinu Christians are an East African religious group often identified by their distinctive turbans and headwraps. Their clues can overlap with Sikh, Shia, and Rastafarian headwear traditions because the turban is the key identifying garment.

  • Alpha and Omega — Alpha and Omega are the first and last Greek letters, used in Revelation as a title for God and in Christian symbolism. They appear on Paschal candles and in the Chrismon of St. Ambrose, and the phrase has also inspired later occult and pop-culture titles.

  • Angelology
    • Heavenly throne — A major sacred symbol in Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrian lore, and Islam. In biblical and Islamic visions it is the heavenly throne of God or Allah, evoked by Revelation’s throne imagery and the Quranic Throne Verse. In Christian and biblical tradition it is surrounded by worshiping figures such as the seraphim and the twenty-four elders; related imagery includes the throne-chariot and the ophanim, the fiery wheel-like angelic beings associated with Ezekiel’s vision. In Islam, al-Arsh symbolizes divine kingship and vast cosmic authority, and is linked to the hamlat al-arsh, the bearers of the throne.

  • annihilationism — Annihilationism is the doctrine that the unsaved are not eternally tortured but instead cease to exist or are destroyed. It is associated with Seventh-day Adventists and, in similar language, some Jehovah’s Witness teachings.

  • Anti-Mass ritual
    • Black Mass — A black mass is an occult parody of the Catholic Mass associated with Satanic ritual and blasphemous inversions of Christian practice. Accounts often mention reversed prayers, upside-down crosses, and desecration of communion bread.
  • Anti-trinitarianism
    • Unitarianism or anti-trinitarianism — Unitarianism is a Christian anti-trinitarian doctrine that denies the traditional multiplicity of the Godhead. Important advocates included Ferenc Dávid, John Biddle, William Ellery Channing, and Theodore Parker.
  • Apocalyptic Symbols
    • the seven seals — The seven seals are the apocalyptic seals in the Book of Revelation whose breaking precedes the end times. They are also the title image for Ingmar Bergman’s The Seventh Seal.
  • Apocalyptic thinkers
    • Joachim of Fiore — Joachim of Fiore was a medieval Calabrian mystic and apocalyptic thinker who divided history into the Ages of the Father, the Son, and the coming Holy Spirit. His visions and prophetic writings influenced later Franciscan and millenarian thought.
  • apostles — The apostles were the original leaders and disciples of early Christianity, especially the twelve associated with Jesus. They are the namesakes of the Apostles’ Creed and the Acts of the Apostles, and Junia is sometimes described as an apostle.

    • Bartholomew — One of the apostles of Jesus; traditionally identified with Nathaniel in some Christian traditions. He is associated with a feast day on August 24 and is often depicted with a knife and flayed skin because legend says he was martyred by being skinned alive; Michelangelo included a self-portrait in The Last Judgment in which he holds Bartholomew’s flayed skin.

    • Boanerges — Boanerges is the nickname Jesus gave to James and John, the sons of Zebedee, meaning “sons of thunder.” Dickinson also uses the name for the sound of a steam train in “I like to see it lap the Miles.”

    • James — James is the shared name of two apostles, including the sons of Zebedee and Alphaeus.

    • James and John — James and John were the sons of Zebedee, fishermen who became apostles of Jesus. They were nicknamed the Sons of Thunder, and John is identified as the Evangelist while James is the Greater.

    • John the Apostle — Traditionally identified as the author of the Gospel of John, the Book of Revelation, and three New Testament epistles. He is associated with the island of Patmos, where he received apocalyptic visions after exile, is symbolized by an eagle, and is traditionally said to have survived being plunged into boiling oil. His feast day is December 27, and he is linked with the Fourth Gospel’s opening line, “In the beginning was the Word.”
      • Saint John the Evangelist — Saint John the Evangelist is the traditional author of the Fourth Gospel and the short epistles addressed to the “elect lady” and to Gaius. He is also linked by tradition to the Book of Revelation, though he should not be confused with John the Baptist or John of Patmos.

    • Saint Andrew the Apostle — Saint Andrew the Apostle is the disciple who was crucified on a diagonal cross, which became his namesake cross. He is also the saint associated with Scotland’s flag and with Advent’s late-November feast day.

    • Saint Bartholomew — One of the twelve apostles, traditionally identified with Nathanael. He is associated with missionary work in India or Armenia and with martyrdom by flaying alive or crucifixion. In Michelangelo’s Last Judgment he is depicted holding his skin and a flaying knife. His feast day is August 24, which is linked to the 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre of French Protestants.

    • Saint James the Greater — James the son of Zebedee, also known as Saint James the Greater, is one of the apostles and the brother of John. He is traditionally said to be the first apostle martyred, beheaded by Herod Agrippa, and is often identified as the patron saint of Spain. His shrine at Santiago de Compostela made him a major pilgrimage figure; he is associated with the scallop shell, the red cross of the military order of Santiago, his feast day on July 25, and the legend of his appearance at Clavijo as Matamoros.

    • Saint Jude Thaddeus — Saint Jude Thaddeus is one of the Twelve Apostles and the patron saint of desperate or lost causes and hospitals. He is commonly shown with the Image of Edessa and also appears in Afro-Caribbean devotional traditions as a loa.

    • Saint Matthias — Saint Matthias was the apostle chosen by lot in Acts to replace Judas Iscariot among the Twelve. Later tradition associates him with the martyrdom story in which he takes Judas’s place after the betrayal.

    • Saint Simon Peter — Saint Simon Peter is the apostle who denied Jesus three times, witnessed the Transfiguration, and is traditionally regarded as the first pope. He is also the Peter who receives the keys of heaven and who appears prominently in Acts after Pentecost.

    • Simon Peter — Simon Peter is one of Jesus’ apostles, identified in the New Testament as the disciple called Cephas and as the rock on which the Church is built. He denied Jesus three times before the rooster crowed, is associated with the keys of heaven, and is traditionally regarded as the first pope. Acts portrays him preaching at Pentecost, healing the lame man at the Beautiful Gate, raising Tabitha, judging Ananias and Sapphira, confronting Simon Magus, and receiving the vision of the sheet with unclean animals and the conversion of Cornelius, the first Gentile convert. Christian tradition says he was crucified upside down in Rome, and Vatican basilica and the Pearly Gates are linked to his name.

    • St. James the Great — One of the sons of Zebedee and one of the Twelve Apostles. Tradition says he was martyred in Jerusalem, and his relics were later associated with Santiago de Compostela in Spain, making him the apostle linked to pilgrimage there. He appears in art and legend as a martyr, including scenes of his execution and stories surrounding his cult.

    • St. James the Great or James Major or St. James of Compostela — James the Great was one of the apostles, the brother of John, and the patron saint of Spain. Acts says he was executed by Herod Agrippa I, and later tradition connects him with Compostela and with sword imagery.

    • The Apostle Paul — The Apostle Paul was the Christian missionary who made three missionary journeys and wrote much of the New Testament. In Acts, he is imprisoned by Felix and Porcius Festus before appealing to Caesar and traveling to Rome for trial.

    • Thomas Didymus — Thomas Didymus is another name for the apostle Thomas, the disciple remembered for doubting the resurrection until he could touch Jesus’s wounds. Later tradition placed his martyrdom in India, near a mountain and shrine associated with his name.

    • Thomas the Apostle — Thomas the Apostle, also called Didymus or Doubting Thomas, is the disciple famous for demanding to touch Jesus’ wounds before believing in the Resurrection and for appearing in resurrection narratives after missing Jesus’ first appearance to the disciples. Tradition links him to missionary work in India, where he founded Christian communities and became a patron saint; later legends say he was martyred by spear. He is also associated with the Gospel of Thomas, the gnostic sayings text, the Hymn of the Pearl, apocryphal traditions about the Assumption of Mary, and various Coptic texts found at Nag Hammadi.

    • Twelve Apostles — The Twelve Apostles were the closest followers of Jesus and the disciples associated with the Last Supper. The term also appears in the New Testament for the group commissioned after Jesus prayed on a mountainside.

    • X-shaped cross — An X-shaped cross, or crux decussata, is the traditional form associated with Saint Andrew’s crucifixion. It is a common identifying clue in questions about Andrew, especially in references to his martyrdom at Patras and later veneration as patron of Scotland and several Eastern European countries.
  • Archangels
    • Michael the Archangel — Michael the Archangel is the warrior and protector angel who leads the heavenly forces against Satan in Revelation. He is often identified in Christian tradition as the head of God’s army.

  • Beguines — The Beguines were a medieval movement of devout laywomen, especially in the Low Countries and the Rhineland, who lived in separate communities without taking formal vows. They devoted themselves to chastity, poverty, prayer, and good works, and some of their communities later became UNESCO World Heritage sites. The movement was condemned as heretical in the fourteenth century and later rehabilitated.

  • Bible societies
    • The Gideons International — The Gideons International is a laymen’s Christian organization known for distributing Bibles in hotels, motels, and prisons. It began in 1898 and placed its first Bible at the Superior Hotel in Iron Mountain, Montana.
  • Bible translation
    • William Tyndale — William Tyndale was the English reformer who produced the first English translation of the Bible and was executed for heresy in the Netherlands in 1536. He translated in a style that introduced phrases like “seek and ye shall find” and “the powers that be,” and he criticized Henry VIII’s divorce in The Practice of Prelates. After disputes with church authorities and betrayal by Henry Phillips, he was strangled and burned after a long campaign for vernacular scripture.

  • catechisms — Catechisms are instructional texts in question-and-answer form used to teach Christian doctrine. Examples include Lutheran, Reformed, and Catholic catechisms such as the Heidelberg Catechism and the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

  • Catholic — Catholic refers to the universal Christian church and, capitalized, to the Roman Catholic Church and its adherents, headed spiritually by the Pope. It is especially associated with the Western Church after the schism of 1054 and with Protestant reactions during the Reformation. The term also appears in discussions of Shakespeare’s supposed Catholic sympathies, such as claims based on The Phoenix and the Turtle and Hamlet.

  • Catholic theology
    • Karl Rahner — Karl Rahner was a German Jesuit theologian who developed the idea of anonymous Christians. He was one of the most influential Catholic thinkers of the twentieth century and wrote Foundations of the Christian Faith.

  • chrism — Chrism is the consecrated anointing oil used in Christian rites such as Confirmation and, in Eastern practice, immediately after baptism. It is typically olive oil scented with perfume or myrrh; in Catholic practice it is blessed on Holy Thursday and stored for sacramental use. In Judaism and Christianity it is used for priests, kings, and other holy rites, and Eastern Christianity calls it myron.

  • Christ imagery
    • Christ Pantocrator — Christ Pantocrator is the traditional Byzantine icon of Christ as ruler of all, usually shown front-facing with one hand in blessing and the other holding a gospel book. A famous early example survives at Saint Catherine’s Monastery on Sinai, and later mosaics often place the image in a dome or apse.

  • Christian apologetics — Christian apologetics is the reasoned defense of Christianity, using argument and philosophical reasoning to answer criticism and justify belief. The term comes from a Greek word for a defense speech. Notable works in the genre include writings by Tertullian, Marcus Minucius Felix, and C. S. Lewis.

  • Christian doctrine
    • Catechism — A catechism is a Christian instructional text written in question-and-answer form. Famous examples include the Council of Trent catechism, the Heidelberg Catechism, and the versions found in the Book of Common Prayer and the Catholic Catechism.

  • Christian God — The Christian God is the deity discussed in ontological arguments and in theological claims about divine existence. Nietzsche famously declared this God “dead” in The Gay Science.

  • Christian martyrs — Christian martyrs are people killed for their faith in Jesus, with Saint Stephen often treated as the first Christian martyr. They are the subject of works such as Foxe’s Book of Martyrs and the Anabaptist Martyrs Mirror.

  • Christian organizations
    • The Salvation Army — The Salvation Army is the William Booth-founded Christian charitable organization organized with military ranks and famous for seasonal fundraising kettles. It grew out of East End London rescue work and became known for its newspapers, uniforms, and evangelical social ministry.
      • William Booth — William Booth founded the Salvation Army and was celebrated in Vachel Lindsay’s poem “General William Booth Enters Into Heaven” as a general leading a Christian mission. He wrote In Darkest England and the Way Out and the Salvation Army’s Orders and Regulations, and promoted social reform efforts such as a colony at Hadleigh Farm and campaigns for safer match production.
  • Christian slogans
    • What Would Jesus Do? — A Christian slogan asking believers to judge their behavior by comparing it to Christ’s example. It was popularized by Charles Sheldon’s novel In His Steps, and was promoted by a minister in Michigan in 1989 before spreading widely on wristbands, pendants, and similar trinkets.
  • Christian symbols

    • chi and rho — Chi and rho are the first two Greek letters of Christ’s name and are often combined as a Christian monogram. The symbol appears in early Christian art and was linked by legend to Constantine’s victory before the Battle of Milvian Bridge.

    • Chi-Rho — The Chi-Rho is a Christian monogram formed from the first two Greek letters of Christ’s name. Constantine is said to have seen or used it before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, and it appears on his labarum.

  • Christians — Christians are followers of Jesus Christ. They were persecuted in the Roman Empire and later became the target of anti-Christian polemic. The group is central to Roman, Islamic, and early theological history, and appears in contexts including the Edict of Milan, the Great Fire of Rome, catacombs, and Qur’anic criticism of Jesus’ divinity. The group is discussed through figures such as Tertullian, Julian the Apostate, and Augustine.

  • Church architecture
    • Holy Doors — Holy Doors are special church entrances associated with Jubilee pilgrimages and plenary indulgences. The clues point to the sealed door at St. Peter’s Basilica and to similar royal and iconostatic doors in Catholic and Orthodox settings.
  • churches
    • Hillsong Church — Hillsong Church is the Australian megachurch famous for its worship music and affiliated record label. Founded by Frank Houston and later led by Brian Houston, it became internationally known through contemporary Christian albums and bands such as Hillsong Young & Free. Recent scandals involving pastors like Carl Lentz also brought it into the news.
  • Churches in Revelation
    • Seven Churches of Asia — The Seven Churches of Asia are the Christian communities in western Asia Minor addressed in the Book of Revelation. They include Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea.

  • convents — These institutions, especially convents, appear as settings in works from Frost in May to Black Narcissus and The Nun. They also include special forms such as beaterios and convent schools, and in some historical contexts they housed women of high status or reformed sex workers.

  • Conversion and missionary expansion
    • Christianization — Christianization is the conversion of a people or culture to Christianity, often replacing older pagan religions. Iceland’s Althing adopted Christianization in the year 1000 under Thorgeir Thorkelsson, a classic quizbowl example.
  • creeds — Creeds are formal confessions of faith that summarize a religion’s core beliefs. Examples include the Nicene Creed, the Apostles’ Creed, and the Athanasian Creed.

    • Athanasian Creed — A Christian statement of faith that begins Quicumque vult (“Whoever wishes”). It strongly emphasizes the equality of the Trinity and was traditionally attributed to the fourth-century Alexandrian bishop St. Athanasius, though that attribution is historically mistaken. Anglican articles of religion list it alongside the Nicene Creed and the Apostles’ Creed.

    • Creed — A creed is a formal statement of belief, and the prompt here points especially to the Christian Nicene Creed and the Jedi Code’s creed-like opening. The Nicene tradition is associated with Athanasius and Trinitarian doctrine, while the Jedi version begins, “I am a Jedi, an instrument of peace.”

    • The Apostles’ Creed — The Apostles’ Creed is a short early Christian statement of belief that includes the Virgin Birth, the crucifixion under Pontius Pilate, the resurrection, and the forgiveness of sins. It predates the Nicene Creed and is widely used in Western Christianity.

  • deacons — Deacons are church ministers whose name comes from the Greek for ‘servant’ or ‘helper.’ In early Christian and later Catholic and Orthodox usage, they assist priests and elders in ministry, and the role includes the permanent diaconate.

  • Demons — Supernatural beings often portrayed as malicious tempters, deceivers, tormentors of the damned, or possessors of human bodies. They appear in philosophy, folklore, literature, and film, including biblical and Symbolist imagery and horror franchises such as Paranormal Activity.
    • devils — Devils are supernatural beings of evil, often identified with Satan, Lucifer, demons, or rebellious angels. They also appear in sports mascots and in social-science discussions of moral panics and scapegoating.
  • Devotional literature
    • The Imitation of Christ or Imitatio Christi — The Imitation of Christ is a devotional classic usually attributed to Thomas à Kempis. Organized into four books, it stresses humility, meditation, and withdrawal from worldly concerns in the spirit of the devotio moderna.
  • Doctrinal concepts
    • heresy — Heresy is the holding or promotion of doctrines that conflict with accepted orthodoxy. In religious history it is associated with movements such as Arianism and Nestorianism, and with the condemnation of figures like Wycliffe and Luther. The term can also appear in discussions of medieval church discipline and later doctrinal persecution.
  • doctrines
    • universalism — Universalism is the Christian doctrine that all souls will ultimately be saved or reconciled with God. It is often linked to apokatastasis, hopeful universalism, and the theology historically associated with Unitarian Universalism.
  • Dualist sects
    • Bogomils or Bogomilism — The Bogomils were a medieval Bulgarian dualist sect whose teachings blended elements of Manichaeism, Paulicianism, and gnostic-style cosmology. They were condemned as heretical and are often discussed alongside other Balkan and western European dualist movements such as the Cathars.
  • Early Church
    • Roman Christians — Roman Christians were the early followers of Christianity in the Roman Empire who were persecuted under emperors such as Nero, Decius, and Diocletian. Their status changed after Constantine’s Edict of Milan, which tolerated the religion after the Battle of the Milvian Bridge.

  • East-West Schism — The East-West Schism, or Great Schism, was the 1054 break between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. It is commonly linked to Cardinal Humbert’s excommunication of Michael Cerularius and to disputes over papal authority, the filioque clause, and other liturgical and disciplinary controversies involving figures such as Michael Cerularius and Leo of Ohrid.

  • Easter Sunday — The Christian feast celebrating the resurrection of Jesus Christ, observed at the end of Holy Week and the Triduum, after Good Friday and the end of Lent. It is the central feast of Christian liturgy and a movable feast whose date is set by computus and is tied to Passover in origin. In Orthodox traditions it is followed by Bright Week; many traditions mark it with sunrise services, the Paschal candle, white vestments replacing Lenten purple, eggs, the Easter Bunny, or Holy Fire.

    • Easter Monday — Easter Monday is the day after Easter Sunday, and in several European traditions it is associated with processions, spring customs, and Dyngus Day celebrations. It also marks Bright Week in Eastern Catholic practice and has been used for political remembrance such as the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland.

    • paschal full moon — The paschal full moon is the full moon that determines the date of Easter in Western Christianity. Easter falls on the Sunday after the first full moon on or after the vernal equinox.

  • Ecclesiology
    • apostolic succession — Apostolic succession is the doctrine that bishops and priests derive authority through an unbroken chain of ordination from the original apostles of Christ. It is especially important in Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican claims about valid ordination and ecclesiastical legitimacy.

  • ecumenism — Ecumenism is the movement toward Christian unity across denominations. The term appears in church history for councils seeking consensus and in modern discussions of cooperation among persecuted Christians, sometimes called ecumenism of blood.

  • Ethiopian Christianity
    • Frumentius — Frumentius was the first bishop of Axum and is credited with bringing Christianity to the kingdom of Aksum in the fourth century. He worked with Aedesius, tutored Ezana, and was consecrated by Athanasius.

  • evangelism — Evangelism is the practice of preaching or actively spreading Christianity to convert others. It includes revivalist preaching and modern television ministries associated with figures such as Billy Graham and Pat Robertson.

  • Gluttony — Gluttony is one of the traditional seven deadly sins, referring to excessive eating or overindulgence in food or drink. In medieval moral teaching it is associated with fasting and sobriety, and in Dante’s treatment of sin gluttonous souls are punished in the sixth terrace of Purgatory. It is also cited as a moral failing of figures such as Sir Andrew Aguecheek.

  • Henotikon — The Henotikon was the Byzantine imperial edict issued by Zeno in 482 in an attempt to reconcile Miaphysites and supporters of Chalcedon. Its failure helped provoke the Acacian Schism, and the document is often translated as an Act of Union.

  • Heretical movements
    • Brethren of the Free Spirit — The Brethren of the Free Spirit were a medieval Christian heretical movement associated with mystical and antinomian ideas. They are sometimes linked to later spiritual radicalism and are described as a lay heresy of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
  • holidays

    • Christmas — The Christian holiday commemorating the birth of Jesus, traditionally celebrated on December 25. It is associated with Advent and Epiphany, and in some Eastern Christian communities is observed on January 7, including in Egypt as an important Coptic holiday. It appears in works and scenes such as Handel’s Messiah, Corelli’s Christmas Concerto, Adeste Fideles, Scrooge’s visit from the ghosts, and Charlemagne’s coronation by Pope Leo III.

    • Halloween — Halloween is the autumn holiday associated with costumes, trick-or-treating, and pumpkin carving. Also called All Hallows’ Eve or All Saints’ Eve, its modern American form grew from older Samhain customs, Irish and Scottish immigration to North America, and later popular culture, including the slasher film Halloween featuring Michael Myers.

  • Holy places

    • Mount of Olives — The Mount of Olives is the Jerusalem ridge linked to Jesus’s ascension, his weeping over the city, and the Garden of Gethsemane. It also gives its name to the Olivet Discourse, the apocalyptic sermon in the Synoptic Gospels.

    • the Upper Room — The Upper Room, also called the Cenacle, is the traditional site of the Last Supper, Pentecost, and Matthias’s selection to replace Judas. It also titles Chris Ofili’s controversial installation of monkey paintings and a Philip Glass ballet by Twyla Tharp.

  • Holy Sepulchre
    • Church of the Holy Sepulchre — The church in Jerusalem stands on the traditional site of Golgotha and the tomb of Jesus, and contains sites associated with his crucifixion and burial. It is associated with the Via Dolorosa, the annual Holy Fire ceremony, the Holy Fire ritual, the Status Quo arrangement, and the famous immovable ladder. It is jointly controlled by several denominations and is known in Eastern Orthodox usage as the Church of the Resurrection.
  • Holy sites
    • The Cenacle — The Cenacle, or Upper Room, is the traditional Jerusalem site of the Last Supper and of Peter’s Pentecost sermon. It is located on Mount Zion and is a major Christian pilgrimage site.

  • hymns — Hymns are religious songs commonly sung in Christian worship, and many were written by Charles Wesley, William Billings, and Fanny Crosby. Shape-note notation was used in nineteenth-century hymnals to teach and preserve this kind of music.

  • iconoclasm — Destruction of religious images, especially icons, statues, and other sacred artworks; in Byzantium, the movement opposed the use of sacred images in worship, was promoted under Leo III, intensified under Constantine V, and was formally ended under Empress Irene in 787 by the Second Council of Nicaea. It is also associated with later outbreaks in the Netherlands and during the Reformation.
    • Iconoclastic Controversy — The Iconoclastic Controversy was the Byzantine dispute over the use and veneration of religious images. Beginning in the eighth century, it involved imperial bans on icons and the destruction of images of Christ, Mary, and the saints.
  • iconography
    • icons — Icons are devotional or sacred images in Eastern Orthodox and some Catholic traditions, often painted on wood and venerated rather than merely admired. They may depict Christ Pantocrator, the Theotokos, or saints, and are sometimes covered with a riza that leaves only the face and hands visible. Icons were central to Byzantine icon veneration and the iconoclastic controversies; examples and related types include the Pantocrator and Hodegetria icons, the Mandylion of Edessa, and Andrei Rublev’s icons, with the Fayum portraits sometimes cited as an early painting analogy.

  • Kingdom of God — The Kingdom of God is the New Testament term for God’s reign, often rendered by Matthew as the Kingdom of Heaven. It appears in Jesus’s preaching, the Lord’s Prayer, and later Christian theology from Tolstoy to modern dominion debates.

  • legends
    • Glastonbury Thorn — The Glastonbury Thorn is the legendary thorn tree said to have sprung from Joseph of Arimathea’s staff. It is associated with Glastonbury and is said to bloom around Christmas.
  • Legends and miracles

    • Seven Sleepers of Ephesus — The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus are the legendary Christians who hid in a cave during the reign of Decius and later awoke long after they had been sealed in. Their story is associated with the Quranic sura al-Kahf and with the figure often called Iamblichus.

    • the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus — The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus are the Christian youths who, according to legend, slept in a cave during the persecution of Decius. They awoke centuries later under Theodosius II, believing only a night had passed.

  • Love
    • Agape — Agape is the Greek term for selfless, unconditional love, often contrasted with eros and philia. Early Christians associated it with communal meals, and later writers used it for charitable love toward God and neighbor.
  • Marian doctrines

    • Assumption of the Virgin Mary — The Catholic doctrine and feast that Mary was taken body and soul into heaven at the end of her earthly life; in Eastern Christianity it is commonly commemorated as the Dormition of the Virgin, which emphasizes her death and being taken bodily into heaven. In Eastern Orthodoxy it is preceded by a two-week fast and marked by a procession of an icon or epitaphios of Mary. Artists such as El Greco and Rubens depicted the event.

    • the immaculate conception — The Immaculate Conception is the Catholic doctrine that Mary was preserved from original sin from the moment of her conception. It was defined dogmatically by Pius IX in 1854 in Ineffabilis Deus and is associated with the feast day of December 8.

  • Missionary activity
    • Christian missionaries — People sent to spread Christianity, often by preaching, translation work, conversion efforts, and travel abroad. Examples and related movements include Jesuits, Protestant missions, the Great Commission, the 10/40 window, the London Missionary Society, and figures such as David Livingstone and John Williams; Jesuit work on quinine may also be mentioned.
      • Mormon missionaries — Mormon missionaries are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints who are typically called elders or sisters and travel in pairs. They are known for door-to-door proselytizing, public name tags, and a period of service that usually begins around age 19.
  • Moral theology
    • The Seven Deadly Sins — The traditional Christian vices of pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth. They are a common subject in art, often depicted as a cycle or set of scenes; Bosch’s circular painting with the Four Last Things, as well as later works by Bruegel, Otto Dix, and others, are notable examples.

  • muscular — Muscular Christianity was a late nineteenth-century movement that linked Christian virtue with physical vigor, athleticism, and moral strength. A related Jewish current, muscular Judaism, also emphasized bodily culture and fitness.

  • New Religious Movements
    • Children of God — The religious cult founded by David Berg in 1968; later known as the Family of Love and the Family International. It became notorious for recruitment through “flirty fishing,” abuse allegations, accusations of child sexual abuse, and controversy over its communal lifestyle.

  • Ordinary Time — Ordinary Time is the liturgical season on the Christian calendar that fills the stretches outside Advent, Christmas, Lent, and Easter. It is represented by green vestments and is split into two parts, one before Lent and one after Pentecost.

  • paraclete — The paraclete is the Greek term commonly translated as advocate or helper in Christian scripture, especially in the Gospel of John. Some Muslim interpretations connect this promised figure with Muhammad through biblical and Qur’anic references.

  • positive thinking
    • Norman Vincent Peale — Norman Vincent Peale was a minister and author associated with positive thinking and self-help Christianity. His best-known book, The Power of Positive Thinking, became a major 1950s bestseller and helped popularize the movement.
  • Priesthood — In Christianity, priesthood refers to the office or status that authorizes a person to perform sacred rites and act in a religious capacity. In Mormon usage, adult male members may be granted priesthoods such as the Aaronic and Melchizedek orders.
    • kohen — A kohen, or kohanim in the plural, is a hereditary Jewish priest descended patrilineally from Aaron. Kohanim performed sacrifices and worship at the Temple in Jerusalem, and still perform duties such as the priestly blessing with the hands arranged in the traditional gesture, receiving the priestly gifts, redeeming a firstborn son, and traditionally receiving the first Torah reading at synagogue services. They are associated with Temple ritual purity rules, the priestly lineage described in Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus, and Nehemiah, and surnames such as Cohen.
  • prosperity theology — It teaches that faith, donations, and material success are signs of God’s favor and can lead to financial success, health, and worldly blessing. It is associated with televangelists such as Joel Osteen, Kenneth Copeland, Creflo Dollar, and Reverend Ike, and with “seed faith” giving.
    • Joel Osteen — Joel Osteen is the pastor of Lakewood Church and a prominent American prosperity-gospel televangelist. He is known as the “Smiling Preacher” and drew criticism after Hurricane Harvey for the church’s delayed response.

  • Pseudo-Dionysius — Pseudo-Dionysius is the pseudonymous Christian writer whose works blend Neoplatonism with mysticism and apophatic theology. He is especially associated with On the Divine Names and On the Celestial Hierarchy, both later commented on by John Scotus Eriugena.

  • Puritan — Puritans were English Protestants who sought a more stringent reform of the Church of England and settled in New England. They are associated with the founding of Massachusetts Bay and with persecution by the Church of England.

  • Quakers or Religious Society of Friends — A Christian Protestant movement founded in seventeenth-century England by George Fox. Quakers emphasize the Inner Light, simplicity, pacifism, and unprogrammed silent worship in meetings led by the spirit. They were persecuted for refusing oaths and military service, and later became known for peace and relief work. Distinctive practices mentioned in the records include plain dress, plain speech, women’s preaching, First Day School, regional Yearly Meetings, and support for anti-slavery activism. The group had major influence in Pennsylvania and later split into branches including Hicksite and Orthodox currents, with later Wilburite divisions also noted.
    • friend — A friend is a companion or ally, and the word titles Rina Sawayama’s “Bad Friend.” In Quaker history, Friends are the Religious Society led by George Fox, whose Boston Martyrs included Mary Dyer.
  • Race and religion
    • black skin — Black skin appears in religious and cultural questions about the Black Madonna, Black Jesus traditions, and Frantz Fanon’s work on racial alienation. It is linked in these clues to liberation theology, devotional images such as Our Lady of Aparecida, and the symbolic language of blackness in colonial and postcolonial religion.

  • religious miracles — Religious miracles are supernatural events such as the miracles of Jesus that are discussed by writers like C. S. Lewis and criticized by David Hume. The topic is often linked to debates over evidence, testimony, and the limits of naturalism.

  • Resurrection of Christ — The Christian belief and event that Jesus rose from the dead after the Crucifixion. In art, Christ is often shown carrying a white banner or flag marked with a red cross, as in Piero della Francesca’s depiction and the Isenheim Altarpiece.

  • saints — Saints are holy people recognized through canonization in Christianity, though some traditions also honor unofficial folk saints. The term is also used in syncretic Afro-Atlantic religions such as Santería and Candomblé, and related Afro-Caribbean traditions. Examples include John the Baptist, Jerome, George, Patrick, and Edward the Confessor.

    • Agnes of Rome — Agnes of Rome was an early Christian virgin martyr associated with purity and lamb imagery. Her legend includes refusal of marriage, martyrdom under Roman persecution, and the Feast of Saint Agnes on January 21.

    • Anthony of Padua — Anthony of Padua was a 13th-century saint born in Lisbon who preached in Italy and later became associated with Padua. He is commonly invoked as the patron of lost things and the poor, and legend says he once preached to fish when people would not listen.

    • Benedict — Benedict is the papal name shared by several popes, including Benedict XV of World War I and Benedict XVI, who resigned in 2013. It also refers to Saint Benedict of Nursia, whose rule helped found the Benedictine tradition of prayer and work.

    • Boris and Gleb — Boris and Gleb were the first saints of medieval Rus, martyred after refusing to resist their brother Sviatopolk the Accursed. In Russian orthodoxy they are remembered as Saints David and Roman.

    • Father Maximilian Kolbe — Father Maximilian Kolbe was a Polish Franciscan priest who volunteered to die at Auschwitz in 1943. He was executed after offering himself in place of another prisoner who had escaped.

    • Fourteen Holy Helpers — The Fourteen Holy Helpers are a group of Auxiliary Saints venerated in parts of Germany and Austria, especially for aid against plague and bodily ailments. Their cult is associated with visionary stories from the medieval period and with a basilica at Bad Staffelstein.

    • Francis de Sales — Francis de Sales was a French bishop and Catholic writer best known for Introduction to a Devout Life. He was later made patron saint of writers and journalists.

    • Francis of Assisi — Francis of Assisi was a medieval Italian saint known for poverty, preaching to birds, and embracing lepers. He founded the Franciscan order and became a major model for mendicant spirituality.
      • Canticle of the Sun — The Canticle of the Sun, also called the Canticle of the Creatures or Laudes Creaturarum, is a hymn by St. Francis of Assisi praising God through Brother Fire, Sister Water, and other elements of creation. It was composed in 1224 while Francis was recovering from the stigmata, and its opening praise of the sun gives the work its common English title.

    • Ignatius — Ignatius is the name shared by Ignatius of Antioch and Ignatius of Loyola. The former wrote letters en route to martyrdom, while the latter founded the Jesuits and wrote the Spiritual Exercises.

    • incorruptibility — Incorruptibility is the Catholic and Orthodox belief that the bodies of certain saints do not decay after death. It is often discussed alongside the odor of sanctity and relic cults such as those surrounding Bernadette and Rita of Cascia.

    • Martin of Tours — Martin of Tours was a late Roman saint whose feast day is November 11. He is famous for sharing his cloak with a freezing beggar, and later legend also credits him with healing a leper by kissing him outside Paris.

    • Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini — Mother Frances Xavier Cabrini founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and worked with Italian immigrants in the United States. She is remembered as the first U.S. citizen canonized as a saint.

    • Mother Teresa of Calcutta — Albanian-born Catholic nun who founded the Missionaries of Charity to care for the poor and sick of Calcutta. Born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, she became known for her work in India, received the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize, and was later beatified by the Catholic Church.

    • Saint Andrew — Saint Andrew is the apostle called first by Jesus, brother of Peter, and patron saint of Scotland. He is also associated with the loaves and fishes story and martyrdom on an X-shaped cross.
      • St. Andrew — St. Andrew is the brother of Peter and is traditionally venerated as the patron saint of Scotland and Russia. He is often linked to the X-shaped cross on which he was martyred at Patras.
    • Saint Anthony — Saint Anthony, especially Anthony the Great of Egypt, is a major Christian ascetic saint often shown being tempted in the desert. Hieronymus Bosch, Michelangelo, and other artists depicted his temptation by demons in famous paintings and altarpieces. He is also associated with the Isenheim Altarpiece and the patronage of healing houses for skin disease and ergotism.

      • Anthony — Saint Anthony is the name shared by the desert hermit Anthony the Great and the preacher Anthony of Padua. The former is associated with temptation in the desert, while the latter is famed for sermons to the fish and for anti-heresy preaching.

      • St Anthony — St. Anthony is the name shared by the Egyptian ascetic Anthony the Great and the Franciscan preacher Anthony of Padua. He is a favorite subject in art, especially in temptations scenes by Bosch, Grünewald, Dalí, and others.

    • Saint Benedict of Nursia — Saint Benedict of Nursia founded Monte Cassino and wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict, whose motto is ora et labora. He is linked with Benedictine monasticism, his sister Scholastica, and stories of resisting poison and confronting Totila.
      • St. Benedict — St. Benedict founded the monastery at Monte Cassino and wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict, a foundational text for Western monasticism. He is also remembered as the patron saint invoked against poisoning and for the legend of his death after the death of his sister Scholastica.

    • Saint Blaise — Saint Blaise was an Armenian bishop and martyr associated with healing throat ailments through a feast-day blessing on February 3. Legend credits him with curing wild animals and children, and one story links his martyrdom to iron combs used in his execution.

    • Saint Brendan — Saint Brendan was an Irish monk and abbot associated with the legendary voyage to the New World and the island whale Jasconius. He founded Clonfert and appears in the Navigatio, a semi-legendary travel tale filled with miraculous islands.

    • Saint Bridget of Sweden — Saint Bridget of Sweden, born Birgitta Birgersdotter, was a Swedish mystic who made a pilgrimage to Rome during the Black Death and later lived there. She is also associated with the Bridgettine order at Vadstena and with devotional prayers known as the Fifteen O’s.

    • Saint Catherine of Alexandria — Saint Catherine of Alexandria is the martyred virgin saint said to have refused Emperor Maxentius and to have been executed on a wheel before beheading. She is associated with the breaking of the torture wheel, Mount Sinai, scholarly virgin martyr legends, the Fourteen Holy Helpers, tower imagery tied to her imprisonment, and the shape of rose windows and Catherine wheels.
      • Broken spinning wheel — The broken spinning wheel is the traditional attribute of Saint Catherine of Alexandria. It refers to the instrument of her planned torture, which was miraculously shattered.

    • Saint Christopher — Saint Christopher is the patron saint of travelers, famous for carrying the Christ child across a river. His legends include miraculous arrows, the flowering staff, and the older name Reprobus.

    • Saint Clare of Assisi — Clare of Assisi was a follower of Francis of Assisi who founded the Poor Clares, a Franciscan order of women. She is the patron saint of television because she is said to have miraculously seen and heard Mass while too ill to attend.
      • Clare of Assisi — The answer is likely Clare of Assisi, the 13th-century saint associated with the patronage of television.

    • Saint Cuthbert — Saint Cuthbert was a Northumbrian saint associated with Lindisfarne and later Durham Cathedral. His body was translated from Lindisfarne after the monastery’s abandonment and he became a major regional patron saint.

    • Saint Cyprian — Saint Cyprian was a third-century bishop of Carthage whose writings describe a devastating plague that later bore his name. He was martyred under Valerian during the Crisis of the Third Century.

    • Saint Denis — The legendary first bishop of Paris and a martyr said to have carried his own severed head after execution. He became associated with the Abbey of Saint-Denis and with medieval vassalage ceremonies that used his relics.

    • Saint Dismas — Saint Dismas is the traditional name of the repentant thief crucified beside Jesus in the Gospel of Luke. He is venerated as a saint and is associated with condemned men and undertakers.

    • Saint Dunstan — Saint Dunstan was a major Anglo-Saxon churchman and adviser to King Edgar, later associated with Edward the Martyr and the archbishopric of Canterbury. In legend, he caught the Devil with red-hot tongs and the story of the horseshoe is linked to him.

    • Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton — Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton was the first native-born American to be canonized by the Roman Catholic Church. She founded the Sisters of Charity and helped establish the first major American Catholic religious community.

    • Saint Frances Xavier Cabrini — Italian-born missionary who founded the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart, also given in one record as the Sisters of the Sacred Heart. She worked among Italian immigrants in New York City and for Italian-Americans in the United States, and founded schools, hospitals, orphanages, and dozens of convents. She was the first American citizen canonized by the Catholic Church.

    • Saint Francis — Saint Francis of Assisi was the founder of the Franciscan order and a model of poverty and devotion. He is famous for the stigmata, his association with animals, and frequent artistic depictions receiving Christ’s wounds.

    • Saint Francis Xavier — Saint Francis Xavier was a founding Jesuit missionary who worked in India, Japan, and the East Indies before dying on a Chinese island in 1552. He was later buried in Goa and became one of the patron saints of missions, as well as of China and Japan.

    • Saint Genevieve — Saint Genevieve is the patron saint of Paris and is traditionally credited with converting Clovis I to Christianity. She is linked to the Parisian Pantheon and is celebrated in hagiographic accounts of early Frankish Christianity.

    • Saint George of Lydda — Saint George of Lydda is the martyr and patron saint of England best known for the dragon-slaying legend. He is honored in both Eastern and Western Christian traditions, with feast days on April 23 in the West and May 6 in some Eastern churches.

    • Saint Hippolytus of Rome — Hippolytus of Rome was an early Christian theologian who attacked Pope Zephyrinus as a modalist. After breaking with Pope Calixtus over absolution for adulterers, he became the first antipope. These clues also point to his association with the Logos doctrine and his later recognition as a saint.

    • Saint James the Just — Saint James the Just, also called James the brother of the Lord, is the traditional first bishop of Jerusalem. Christian tradition associates him with an epistle, a martyrdom in Jerusalem, and the earliest complete form of the Divine Liturgy named for him. He is one of the key Jerusalem church figures mentioned alongside Peter and John, and his legacy includes the Apostolic Decree in Acts and debate over faith and works in the Epistle of James.

    • Saint Joseph — Joseph is revered as the foster father of Jesus and a major saint in Christianity. These clues identify him as the Patron Saint of the Universal Church. He is also commonly invoked as the patron of those in doubt and of carpenters.

    • Saint Lawrence — A Roman deacon martyred in 258, traditionally said to have been roasted alive on a gridiron or grill. Legend says he joked to his executioners while being burned, and he is often depicted with a grill. He became a patron saint of cooks and comedians, and his martyrdom is commemorated in artistic and architectural references such as the Escorial.

    • Saint Michael the Archangel — The archangel whose Hebrew name means “who is like God.” He is traditionally depicted as the leader of God’s army against Satan, the warrior angel invoked in prayers to defend the faithful, and a protector in battle. Christian tradition links him to the Book of Daniel, the dispute over Moses’s body, and Revelation’s vision of Michael leading God’s army against Satan; he is also shown weighing souls at the final judgment. He has a feast day on September 29 and is associated with mountain chapels in Germany and the city of Arkhangelsk. He is patron saint of grocers, mariners, paratroopers, police, and the sick.

    • Saint Monica — Monica was the mother of Augustine of Hippo, whose Confessions famously describe his conversion to Christianity. She was married to Patricius and is remembered as a saintly model of persistence and charity. Her name is shared with the California city of Santa Monica, and some clues mention her charitable works and youthful criticism for a fondness for wine.

    • Saint Nicholas of Myra — Saint Nicholas of Myra is the bishop whose legends inspired Santa Claus and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition. He is associated with three bags of gold, the rescue of three children, and the feast day on December 6. Stories about him include punching Arius and saving children, sailors, and innocents from danger. His cult spread widely across Europe, where he became one of the most beloved saints in Christian tradition.

    • Saint Olaf — Saint Olaf, also called Olaf II of Norway, was canonized in 1164 after dying at the Battle of Stiklestad. His shrine at Nidaros Cathedral drew pilgrims, and Norway still honors him with the Order of St. Olav.

    • Saint Patrick — Saint Patrick is the patron saint of Ireland, traditionally said to have been captured by pirates, enslaved in Ireland, and later returned to evangelize the island and convert its people. Legend links him with King Laoghaire’s court, the druids at Tara, the shamrock, and the driving out of snakes. His writings include the Confessio and the Letter to Coroticus, and he is commemorated on March 17 as St. Patrick’s Day.

    • Saint Susanna — Saint Susanna was a Christian martyr who, according to the clue, was a Vestal Virgin and was beheaded under Diocletian. She is said to have died for refusing to abandon her chastity vows or marry Galerius.

    • Saint Thomas à Becket — Saint Thomas à Becket was the Archbishop of Canterbury who clashed with Henry II over clerical privileges and the Constitutions of Clarendon. He was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral by knights who took the king’s words too literally, and he later became a major cult saint.

    • Saint Valentine — Saint Valentine is the martyr associated with the February feast day of courtly love. He was said to have been executed under Claudius II after performing marriages for Roman soldiers and, in one legend, curing a judge’s daughter of blindness.

    • Saint Veronica — Saint Veronica is the woman in Christian tradition who wipes Christ’s face with her veil on the way to Calvary. She is associated with the Veil of Veronica, said to bear an image of Christ, and appears in the Sixth Station of the Cross.

    • St. Agnes — St. Agnes was a fourth-century virgin martyr who refused marriage and was associated with miraculous protection of her modesty and later execution. Her feast day is January 21, and the pope blesses lambs in her honor for use in archiepiscopal wool vestments.

    • St. Ambrose — St. Ambrose was the fourth-century Bishop of Milan and a Doctor of the Church. He is remembered for his conflicts with Theodosius after the Thessalonica massacre, his support for ascetic virginity, and works such as On the Mysteries.

    • St. Bernard — St. Bernard of Clairvaux was a medieval Cistercian monk who helped end the schism of Anacletus II and preached the Second Crusade. He is also remembered for opposing Abelard and for becoming the saint associated with the rescue dog breed named after him.

    • St. Blaise — St. Blaise was an Armenian martyr and saint associated with healing throat ailments and blessing throats on February 3. He is also linked to the patronage of wild animals and the legend of saving a child from choking on a fishbone.

    • St. Bridget — St. Bridget refers to two saints of the same name, including the patron of Sweden and the Irish saint linked to a Christianized fertility cult. The Irish Bridget became especially popular in Ireland and is often treated as a syncretic figure with deep pre-Christian associations.

    • St. Catherine — St. Catherine is the name shared by several saints, including Catherine of Siena, Catherine of Alexandria, and Catherine Labouré. Quizbowl clues often point to the mystical Dominican of Siena, the martyr associated with the breaking wheel, or other devotional figures with the same name.

    • St. Catherine of Alexandria — St. Catherine of Alexandria is the martyr-saint associated with the breaking wheel and with protection against sudden death. Legend says her body was discovered at Mount Sinai with her hair still growing after she was beheaded for refusing to submit to pagan torture.

    • St. Catherine of Siena — St. Catherine of Siena was a fourteenth-century Dominican mystic and Doctor of the Church known for her stigmata and her book The Dialogue. She influenced Gregory XI to return the papacy from Avignon to Rome and is often paired with Teresa of Ávila as an early female Doctor of the Church.

    • St. Cyril — St. Cyril was a Byzantine missionary who, with his brother Methodius, helped create the Glagolitic alphabet for Slavic languages. He later became bishop of Alexandria and is remembered as a major opponent of Nestorius.

    • St. Dimas or Dismas — Dismas is the repentant thief crucified alongside Jesus. In Christian tradition he is often treated as the patron saint of criminals and thieves.

    • St. Elmo — St. Elmo is the name commonly used for St. Erasmus of Formia, a martyr whose legend gave its name to St. Elmo’s fire. The saint is linked to sailors and to the story that he was tortured with a pitch-filled barrel and later disemboweled.

    • St. Erasmus — St. Erasmus, also called St. Elmo, was a martyr associated with sailors and the phenomenon known as St. Elmo’s fire. Clues often mention the legend that his intestines were wound out on a windlass and that he became one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers.

    • St. Genevieve — St. Genevieve was a fifth-century Christian woman from the Paris region who devoted herself to religious life after hearing St. Germain preach against Pelagianism. Tradition says her prayers spared Paris from Attila’s invasion, and she is commonly regarded as the city’s patron saint.

    • St. George — St. George is the dragon-slaying Christian saint who became the patron saint of England and the Order of the Garter. He also appears in Eastern Christian traditions and in art by Donatello and Paolo Uccello, as well as in stories connected to Georgia and Ethiopia.

    • St. Helena of Constantinople — St. Helena of Constantinople was the mother of Constantine and is associated with the discovery of the True Cross in Jerusalem. Legends about her include miracles involving basil, cats, and relic-hunting in the Holy Land.

    • ST. JOHN NEUMANN — John Neumann was a Bohemian-born immigrant to the United States who worked chiefly in Philadelphia. He is credited with helping organize Catholic education in America.

    • St. Jude Thaddaeus — One of the apostles and traditionally identified as the apostle who replaced Judas. He is honored as the patron saint of hopeless or lost causes, lost causes, and hospitals, and is also associated with a short New Testament epistle and a feast day in late June. Christian art often shows him with a club or axe, a medallion of Christ, and a flame above his head.

    • St. Kateri Tekakwitha — St. Kateri Tekakwitha was a Mohawk Catholic saint known as the Lily of the Mohawks. She became the first Native American woman canonized by the Catholic Church and is patron saint of ecology.

    • St. Lucy — The virgin martyr of Syracuse, whose feast day is December 13. She is associated with eye trouble and commonly invoked for eye ailments. Legend links her to a rejected suitor and to her eyes being removed or displayed as an emblem. She is also tied to the Swedish Festival of Lights.

    • St. Lucy of Syracuse (St. Lucia of Syracuse) — Lucy of Syracuse is the martyr saint often shown carrying a dish with two eyes. That iconography reflects the legend that she was blinded during her torture.

    • St. Margaret of Scotland — Margaret of Scotland was the queen consort of Malcolm III and a later saint of the medieval Scottish church. She is associated with introducing English customs and stronger Roman Catholic observance into Scotland, and with a chapel at Holyrood named for her.

    • St. Maria Goretti — Maria Goretti was an Italian saint remembered for resisting a sexual assault and dying of her stab wounds in 1902. She is often identified as the patron saint of teenagers, and her canonization was notable for the presence of both her mother and her killer.

    • St. Martin de Porres — St. Martin de Porres was a Peruvian Dominican lay brother known for charity and service to the poor. Clues about him often mention his mixed-race background, his work as a barber-surgeon, and his later canonization.

    • St. Martin of Tours — Martin of Tours was a Roman soldier-turned-saint remembered for sharing his cloak with a freezing beggar at Amiens. He is also tied to the famous dream in which Christ appears wearing the divided cloak, and he became a major patron saint of France.

    • St. Vitus — St. Vitus was an early Christian martyr later associated with epilepsy and nervous disorders. The involuntary movements of Sydenham’s chorea are called St. Vitus’s dance.

  • schism — A schism is a formal split within a church or religious body into separate factions. Well-known examples include the Western Schism and the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches.

  • sermons — Sermons are religious discourses that were especially important in Puritan New England and include election sermons and jeremiads. Examples mentioned in the clues include Jonathan Edwards’s Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, John Winthrop’s A Model of Christian Charity, and Wulfstan’s Sermo Lupi ad Anglos.
    • homily — A homily is a sermon or scriptural commentary delivered in a religious service, especially in the Mass after the gospel reading. The term is also used for an edifying discourse, and John Chrysostom is famous for many such works.

  • Sign of the Cross — The Sign of the Cross is a Christian blessing ritual in which a person traces the cross on one’s body while praying or invoking the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. It is common in Catholic and Orthodox practice, though the method, finger position, and shoulder order differ by tradition. Eastern and Western traditions use different forms, and Old Believers historically preserved an older two-finger version in protest against liturgical reform.

  • Sin

    • simony — Simony is the sin of buying or selling church offices or spiritual privileges. The term comes from Simon Magus, whose attempted purchase of divine power in Acts became the classic example of the offense.

    • Venial sin — A venial sin is a lesser sin in Christian theology, one that does not involve grave matter or destroy a person’s relationship with God. Unlike mortal sin, it is typically remitted through repentance and can be punished in purgatory.

    • VENIAL SINS — In Christian theology, venial sins are lesser sins that do not bring damnation. They are contrasted with mortal sins such as sloth, murder, and adultery.

  • Spiritual rebirth
    • born again — Born again is the Christian phrase associated with being spiritually reborn, especially in John 3:3 and other New Testament passages. In evangelical usage it refers to someone who has accepted Jesus as savior, while Catholic tradition may apply it more broadly to the baptized.

  • St. Helena — St. Helena is the mother of Constantine the Great and wife of Constantius Chlorus, and Orthodox tradition honors her as Equal of the Apostles. She is credited in legend with discovering the True Cross and with founding churches such as the Church of the Nativity and the Eleona in the Holy Land.

  • Symbols

    • a cross — A cross is the basic Christian emblem made of two intersecting beams, especially in crucifixion imagery. Medieval art features crosses such as the Gero Cross, the Ruthwell Cross, and jeweled Ottonian examples.

    • a crown of thorns — A crown of thorns is a Christian symbol associated with Christ’s suffering and crucifixion. It also appears metaphorically in Bryan’s Cross of Gold speech as something imposed on labor.

    • a crucifix — A crucifix is a cross bearing the body of Jesus, and the clue set points to that object through both a roadside giant-cross reference and the vanitas motif in The Ambassadors. It is a standard Christian symbol that appears in art, architecture, and devotional contexts.

    • Chi-Rho monogram — The Chi-Rho monogram is the Christian symbol made from the first two Greek letters of Christ’s name and associated with Constantine’s labarum. It appears in late antique art and was also used to date inscriptions such as those on slave collars.

    • Crosses — Crosses are important Christian symbols, especially in crucifix form when depicting Jesus on the instrument of execution. They are common subjects in Christian art and medieval metalwork, including works such as The Dream of the Rood, the Cross of Lothair, and other reliquary crosses, and they are echoed by church architecture and monumental sculpture. Crosses also appear widely in heraldry and flags, including the symbols of Scandinavia and the twelve-pointed Occitan cross.

    • dove — The dove is a traditional symbol of peace and of the Holy Spirit in Christianity. It appears in art of the Immaculate Conception and other biblical scenes as a white bird above Mary or Jesus.

    • pelican — The pelican is a medieval-symbol bird associated with charity and the Eucharist because it was thought to feed its young with its own blood. That same legend made it a symbol of Christ’s Passion and even inspired the original name of Francis Drake’s ship, the Golden Hind.

    • the cross — The cross is the wooden instrument of Jesus’s crucifixion and a central Christian symbol. It also appears in devotional gestures such as the sign of the cross and in works of literature and theology about sacrifice and redemption.

  • Symbols and Traditions
    • Christmas tree — A Christmas tree is the decorated evergreen associated with Christmas celebrations. The title object appears in A Doll’s House, where Nora first asks that it be hidden and later leaves it on stage in a damaged state.
  • Symbols of Christ
    • Lamb of God — The Lamb of God, or Agnus Dei, is a Christian symbol for Christ and a standard part of the Catholic Mass. It also appears in the Ghent Altarpiece, where the Mystic Lamb is adored in the central lower panel.
  • syncretic movements
    • Antonianism — Antonianism was a syncretic religious movement in the Kingdom of Kongo led by Kimpa Vita, who took the name Dona Beatriz. It treated Saint Anthony of Padua as a central figure and drew on Christian imagery in support of local religious and political claims.

  • the body of Christ — The body of Christ is the Eucharistic object and festival theme associated with Corpus Christi. In Christian tradition it is the physical body of Jesus, which is said to be present in the sacrament of the bread.

  • The Imitation of Christ — The Imitation of Christ is a 15th-century Christian devotional often attributed to Thomas à Kempis and shaped by devotio moderna. Divided into four books, it includes long meditations on interior consolation and the sacrament, and it was among the most widely read Christian books after the Bible.

  • the Jehovah’s Witnesses — Jehovah’s Witnesses are a Christian denomination known for door-to-door proselytizing, refusal of blood transfusions, and a strong emphasis on their publications. Their magazine The Watchtower and companion Awake! are central to their millenarian teachings.

  • theologians and scholars
    • Albert Schweitzer — Albert Schweitzer was a theologian, philosopher, Bach scholar, and humanitarian best known for his ethic of Reverence for Life. He won the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize and founded a hospital in what is now Gabon, a major clue in his tossups.
  • Tolstoyanism
    • The Kingdom of God Is Within You — The Kingdom of God Is Within You is Leo Tolstoy’s religious and political treatise advocating Christian nonresistance and rejecting coercion. It helped inspire Tolstoyan movements, including pacifist and anarchist communities, and argues for a social order grounded in truth and spiritual life.

  • Virgin Mary — The Virgin Mary is the mother of Jesus and, in Islam, Maryam, the only woman explicitly named in the Qur’an and the mother of Isa (Jesus); the Qur’an links her with the Annunciation and miraculous birth in the surah named for her. In Christianity she is also the wife of Joseph and a central figure of devotion, often called the Theotokos (“God-bearer” or “Mother of God”), a title affirmed at the Council of Ephesus in 431 against Nestorius. Associated traditions and scenes include the Annunciation, Magnificat, Visitation, Wedding at Cana, the rosary, the Assumption, the Immaculate Conception, and the Seven Sorrows; Eastern hymnody includes Cyril of Alexandria, Axion Estin, and Sub tuum praesidium. She is widely depicted in Christian art by artists such as Duccio, Giotto, Michelangelo, Leonardo, and Raphael, and in images such as the Madonna of the Rocks, the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, and Marian apparitions at Fátima and Guadalupe.

  • white supremacist theology
    • Christian Identity — Christian Identity is a racist white supremacist theology that teaches whites are the true Israelites and is associated with serpent-seed ideology. Quizbowl clues often connect it to Wesley Swift and to conspiracy-theory studies of the racist right.

• Jesus of Nazareth — the central figure of Christianity; Christians believe he is the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ from Greek Christos, translating Hebrew Mashiach); born in Judea under Roman rule, died by crucifixion c. 30–33 CE. He is also identified in Christian tradition with the historical figure crucified under Pontius Pilate; traditions and references about him include the Gospels, Josephus, the Sign of Jonah, and the Transfiguration.

• Resurrection — the belief that Jesus rose bodily from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion; the cornerstone of Christian faith.

• Bible — the Christian scripture; comprises the Old Testament (drawn from Hebrew scriptures) and the New Testament, which includes the four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John), the Acts of the Apostles, the Pauline and other Epistles, and Revelation. It is the central sacred text of Christianity and is often alluded to in literature through titles, quotations, and embedded passages; examples include One Man’s Bible, The Poisonwood Bible, Inherit the Wind, Fahrenheit 451, and Song of Solomon. English versions such as the King James Bible, Wycliffe’s Bible, and Tyndale’s Bible are prominent, and it figures in the Scopes trial, where the historical nature of Genesis was part of the courtroom debate.
  • Apocalyptic figures
    • Gog — Gog is the apocalyptic figure named in Ezekiel and Revelation as a prince associated with Magog and a northern invasion against Israel. Biblical prophecy links Gog with the final war that precedes the coming messianic age.

  • Bibles — Bibles are the sacred texts at the center of a wide range of literary titles and plots, from The Poisonwood Bible to Saramago’s Gospel According to Jesus Christ. They also appear as hollowed-out hiding places, as in Flannery O’Connor and Tom Sawyer, and in the history of English versions such as the King James Bible.

  • Biblical Apocrypha — The Biblical Apocrypha is the collection of Jewish and Christian writings often placed between the Old and New Testaments in Protestant Bibles. It includes books such as Tobit, Judith, Esdras, and Ecclesiasticus, and the name comes from a Greek word meaning hidden.
    • The Apocrypha — The Apocrypha is the collection of biblical books accepted by most Catholics and Orthodox Christians but absent from most Protestant Bibles. Its books include Daniel additions such as Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, and the Prayer of Manasseh.
  • Book of Zephaniah
    • Zephaniah — Zephaniah is a minor prophet whose namesake book foretells judgment on Jerusalem and the nations before ending in a song of joy and restoration. Tradition places him in the reign of Josiah, and his book is a major source for the Dies irae. He is identified as the son of Cushi and may mean that Yahweh has hidden.
  • Books of the Torah
    • Leviticus — Leviticus is the third book of the Torah and Bible/Old Testament, centered on priestly laws, sacrifice, ritual purity, and holiness laws delivered at Sinai. It includes the deaths of Nadab and Abihu for offering strange fire, the Day of Atonement scapegoat sent to Azazel, laws about clean and unclean animals, the Holiness Code, and the command to be holy as God is holy.

      • Holiness Code — The Holiness Code is the section of Leviticus usually identified with chapters 17 through 26. It is known for laws of ritual and moral holiness, including the injunctions about eye for eye and same-sex relations.

      • Leviticus 19:18 — Leviticus 19:18 is the source of the command to love your neighbor as yourself. The verse is echoed in Matthew 22:39 in the New Testament.

  • David — David is the biblical hero shown in celebrated sculptures by Michelangelo, Bernini, Donatello, and Andrea del Verrocchio. These works depict him at different moments of his struggle with Goliath, from poised before battle to triumphant after the victory.

    • Achitophel — Achitophel is the biblical counselor of David who defects to Absalom during the revolt against David. After his advice is rejected, he hangs himself, and John Dryden reused his name as a satiric figure for the earl of Shaftesbury.

    • David, king of Israel — David is the biblical king of Israel who defeats Goliath with a sling rather than Saul’s armor. Family conflicts involving Amnon, Tamar and Absalom shape his later story, including Absalom’s rebellion. Abigail becomes his wife after Nabal’s death, providing a less familiar identifying clue.

    • King David — King David is the biblical king of Israel known for defeating Goliath, composing psalms, and ruling before Solomon. Quizbowl clues also emphasize his affair with Bathsheba, his conflict with Saul, his friendship with Jonathan, and the major biblical art devoted to him by Michelangelo and Bernini.

  • Ethnic groups
    • Ethiopians — Ethiopians are a biblical ethnicity associated with figures such as Ebed-melech, the Queen of Sheba, and the Ethiopian eunuch baptized by Philip in Acts. They also appear in Old Testament passages about Asa’s victory over Zerah and in references to Abraham and Abraha traditions in early Islamic history.
  • Garden of Eden — The biblical paradise and original home of Adam and Eve before their expulsion, the setting of the Fall in Genesis. It is associated with the Tree of Life, the Tree of Knowledge of good and evil, cherubim and a flaming sword, and rivers such as the Pishon, Gihon, and Hiddekel. The forbidden fruit is not securely identified, with suggestions including fig, pomegranate, or olive. Some later traditions place it in locations from Missouri to Mars, but the standard identification is the primordial garden in Genesis.
    • Gihon — Gihon is one of the rivers associated with Eden in Genesis. It is identified in the biblical description as the river that compasseth the land of Ethiopia.
  • Genesis scenes

    • Jacob Wrestling with the Angel — Jacob Wrestling with the Angel is the biblical scene in which Jacob struggles with a winged figure at Peniel. It is famously depicted in Paul Gauguin’s Vision After the Sermon and also appears in works by Delacroix, Rembrandt, and Gustave Doré.

    • The Expulsion from Paradise — The Expulsion from Paradise is the biblical scene of Adam and Eve being driven from Eden by an angel. It is famously depicted by Masaccio in the Brancacci Chapel and by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel.

  • Hebrew Bible women
    • Jael — Jael is the biblical wife of Heber the Kenite who killed Sisera by driving a tent peg through his head. The Song of Deborah praises her for ending the Canaanite general’s campaign.

  • Holy Bible — The Holy Bible is the central scripture of Christianity, divided into the Old and New Testaments. Quizbowl clues often mention early vernacular translations and illuminated medieval manuscripts, including Gutenberg’s printed edition.

  • Jacob’s family
    • Bilhah — Bilhah is the maidservant and concubine given to Jacob by Rachel when Rachel had trouble conceiving. She bore Dan and Naphtali, making her one of the women associated with the patriarch’s family line.
  • Luke-Acts
    • Theophilus — Theophilus is the name of the dedicatee of Luke and Acts, whose identity is unknown and whose name means “friend of God.” The name also appears in church history, including Theophilus of Alexandria and Theophilus of Adana.
  • money
    • Money in the Bible — Money appears in biblical stories through tax collectors such as Matthew and Zacchaeus, the Parable of the Talents and the merchants driven from the Temple. Ananias and Sapphira die after lying about sale proceeds. Judas’s payment and warnings against devotion to wealth provide further clues.
  • New Testament — The New Testament is the second half of the Bible, containing the Gospels, Acts, epistles, and Revelation. It centers on the life and teachings of Jesus and the early Christian church.

    • Aceldama — Aceldama is the name traditionally given to the potter’s field near Jerusalem purchased with Judas’s blood money. Its Greek name means “field of blood.”

    • Ananias and Sapphira — Ananias and Sapphira are the New Testament husband-and-wife pair who sold property and lied about giving all the proceeds to the apostles. According to Acts, they died after Peter confronted them about the deception.

    • Book of Acts of the Apostles — The Book of Acts of the Apostles is the fifth book of the New Testament and the companion work to Luke. It recounts Pentecost, Stephen’s martyrdom, Paul’s conversion, and the shipwreck of Paul on Malta.

    • Caesarea Philippi — Caesarea Philippi is the site in Matthew 16 where Peter confesses Jesus as the Messiah. It is also associated with Jesus’ giving of authority to the church and the sacrament of reconciliation in Christian tradition.

    • epistle — An epistle is one of the New Testament letters, part of the standard division into Gospels, History, Epistles, and Apocalypse. First John is one example of an epistle.

    • Epistle to the Hebrews — The New Testament epistle presents Christ as the superior high priest and mediator of a new covenant, comparing him to Melchizedek and using Melchizedek’s blessing of Abraham to argue for Christ’s superiority to the Levitical order. It is notable for its faith chapter, which defines faith as the substance of things hoped for, its warning that it is fearful to fall into the hands of the living God, its heavy use of the Septuagint, and its opening on God speaking through the Son.

    • Events in the life of Jesus
      • Transfiguration of Christ — The Transfiguration is the New Testament event in which Jesus is shown in glory on a mountain before Peter, James, and John while Moses and Elijah appear beside him. It is a common subject in Christian art, including Fra Angelico’s depiction with the apostles kneeling in the foreground.

    • genealogy of Jesus — The genealogy of Jesus appears in the opening of Matthew and in Luke’s Gospel as long ancestral lists tracing Jesus’s line through Joseph and Mary. These passages connect the New Testament account to Old Testament figures such as Zerubbabel and other named ancestors.

    • General Epistles
      • Letter of Jude — The short New Testament epistle attributed to the brother of James and placed second-to-last in the Christian Bible. It warns against false teachers or heretics, invokes the Book of Enoch, and stresses divine judgment on the wicked, including Sodom and Gomorrah. It is often treated as pseudepigraphal and is one of the Bible’s shortest books.
    • Geography
      • Capernaum — Capernaum was a fishing village on the Sea of Galilee associated with several Gospel healings and with Jesus’ teaching in the synagogue and in Peter’s house. It is also called Jesus’ own town and is linked to Matthew’s tax collection and the healing of a paralytic lowered through the roof.
    • gospels — The gospels are the New Testament writings about the life and teachings of Jesus, traditionally including Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Clues often mention the Synoptic problem, the Q source, the Diatessaron, and the meaning of the word as “good news.”

      • Emmaus — Biblical village west of Jerusalem in Luke’s gospel, associated with the road to Emmaus story: the resurrected Jesus walks with two disciples, remains unrecognized until the supper, and is then recognized as he blesses and breaks bread. The disciples are named as Cleopas and another disciple. It is also the setting of Caravaggio’s Supper at Emmaus and other paintings depicting the meal.

      • Gospel According to Mark — The shortest of the four canonical Gospels and usually considered the earliest, it is a major source for Matthew and Luke in the two-source hypothesis. It opens with John the Baptist, lacks a birth narrative, and is noted for the Messianic Secret, frequent Aramaic sayings, and a heavy emphasis on Jesus’ Passion and final week. Its ending is textually debated: many manuscripts stop at 16:8, where the women flee in fear, and later manuscripts add the Longer Ending.

      • Gospel of John — The fourth and last canonical Gospel and the least synoptic, it opens with the Prologue, “In the beginning was the Word.” It emphasizes Jesus’s divine identity through the Book of Signs, the “I am” sayings, and symbolic use of water and light rather than parables. It includes the wedding at Cana, the Samaritan woman, Nicodemus, the bread of life discourse, the raising of Lazarus, the woman taken in adultery, Jesus entrusting Mary to the beloved disciple at the crucifixion, the second miraculous draught of fishes, and John 3:16, “God so loved the world that he gave his only Son” or “his only begotten Son.”

        • John 3:16 — A verse from the Gospel of John that begins “For God so loved the world,” describing God’s love for the world and the gift of eternal life through belief in the Son. It is a staple prooftext for Christian salvation, one of the most widely quoted passages in the Bible, often memorized in multiple languages and translations, and it became a common slogan on sporting-event signs and in later pop-culture references.

        • John 1:1 — John 1:1 is the opening verse of the Gospel of John in the New Testament. It begins, “In the beginning was the Word,” and identifies the Word as both with God and as God.

        • Adulteress
          • the adulteress — The adulteress is the woman in John 7:53-8:11 whom Jesus saves from being stoned by the crowd. The story is often called the Pericope Adulterae and is famous for the line, ‘He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.’

        • Jesus wept — “Jesus wept” is the shortest verse in the King James Bible, found in John 11:35. It describes Jesus mourning Lazarus before raising him from the dead.

        • John 11:35 — John 11:35 is the shortest verse in many English Bibles. It appears in the Gospel of John and reads, ‘Jesus wept.’

        • Miracles of Jesus
          • raising of Lazarus — The raising of Lazarus is the John miracle in which Jesus calls Lazarus, the brother of Mary and Martha of Bethany, out from a cave after four days in the tomb. This event follows Jesus’ confrontation over returning to Judaea and prompts Caiaphas to begin plotting Jesus’ death.

        • Nicodemus — Nicodemus is the Pharisee in John’s Gospel who visits Jesus by night and asks about being born again. He later defends Jesus before the Sanhedrin and helps prepare Jesus’ body for burial with myrrh and aloes.

        • It is finished — These are the last words of Jesus in the Gospel of John, spoken as he is about to die on the cross. They follow his drink from the vinegar-soaked sponge and are commonly rendered as “It is finished.”
      • Gospel of Luke — The Gospel of Luke is the third and longest Synoptic Gospel, attributed to the evangelist symbolized by a winged ox and addressed to Theophilus. It uniquely includes the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the barren fig tree, and the repentant thief on the cross. Luke is also paired with Acts as part of Luke-Acts.

        • Luke the Evangelist — Traditionally credited with the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles; identified by Paul as a beloved physician. In art, he is often depicted as the first Christian icon painter, and he was the patron figure behind the Guild of Saint Luke, a common name for artists’ guilds in early modern Europe.

        • The Sermon on the Plain — The Sermon on the Plain is Luke’s counterpart to the Sermon on the Mount and includes the Beatitudes and a series of woes. It appears in Luke 6 and presents teachings directed to a broad crowd on level ground.

        • Sermon on the Plain — The Sermon on the Plain is Luke’s account of Jesus’ blessing of the poor, the hungry, and the mourners. It parallels much of the Sermon on the Mount and includes the Golden Rule and warnings against hypocrisy and false prophets.

      • Gospel of Matthew — The first book of the New Testament and one of the Synoptic Gospels. It is traditionally attributed to the apostle and former tax collector Matthew. The Gospel opens with Jesus’ genealogy from Abraham through Solomon, includes the Sermon on the Mount, the Beatitudes, the Lord’s Prayer, the Magi, the Massacre of the Innocents, the mission discourse in chapter 10, and the five great discourses, and ends with the Great Commission. It is especially associated with the kingdom of heaven, prophecy fulfillment, and teachings such as the Pearl of Great Price; it also shares material with Luke in the two-source hypothesis.
        • Holy Innocents — The Holy Innocents are the children killed by King Herod in Matthew’s Nativity narrative. Their feast day is observed on December 28.
          • the Holy Innocents — The Holy Innocents are the infant boys said to have been killed on Herod’s orders after Jesus’ birth. They are honored as martyrs in Christian tradition even though they were not themselves Christians.
        • shall inherit the earth — The Beatitude “Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth” comes from the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew. It promises the humble a share in the earth as part of Jesus’s teaching.

      • Matthew and Luke — Matthew and Luke are two of the four canonical Gospels in the New Testament. They share material such as Jesus’ healing miracles and the Sermon on the Mount tradition.

      • Saint Luke the Evangelist — Saint Luke the Evangelist is the traditional author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, the Third Gospel and the New Testament book that contains the we-passages and Paul’s missionary journeys. Christian tradition identifies him as the beloved physician and a companion of Paul, and says he dedicated his writings to Theophilus. His writings include the Magnificat and the parables of the Good Samaritan and the Unjust Judge. He is one of the four evangelists, is often associated with careful historical narration, and is traditionally credited with being the first painter of icons. He is also remembered as the patron saint of artists, the namesake of artists’ guilds such as the Guild of Saint Luke, and is traditionally associated with relics in Padua.

      • Synoptic Gospels — The Synoptic Gospels are the first three canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which share many of the same stories and sequence of miracles. They are called “synoptic” because they can be read side by side, and Markan priority is the theory that Mark came first.

        • Q Document — The Q document, or Quelle, is the hypothesized sayings source behind Matthew and Luke in the two-source theory. It is treated as an undiscovered collection of Jesus sayings and is often invoked in synoptic gospel studies.

        • synoptic — The term synoptic describes the first three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, whose narratives are similar enough to be viewed together. The word comes from Greek for “seen together” and is commonly contrasted with John.

      • The Gospel of Saint Mark — The Gospel According to Saint Mark is the second book of the New Testament and one of the Synoptic Gospels. It opens with John the Baptist’s preaching and ends with the Resurrection and Ascension, and tradition links it to a disciple of Peter.

    • harmonizing the Gospels — Harmonizing the Gospels is the attempt to reconcile the four canonical gospel accounts into a single coherent life of Jesus. Tatian’s Diatessaron is an early example of this kind of gospel harmony.

    • Hebrews — Hebrews is the New Testament epistle traditionally attributed to Paul but of uncertain authorship. It emphasizes the superiority of Christ and the new covenant, and chapter 11 contains the famous definition of faith and a catalog of Old Testament exemplars.

    • Herod Antipas — Herod Antipas was the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea who ordered John the Baptist’s execution after Salome’s request. The Gospels also link him to the trial of Jesus and to his later exile after seeking royal status in Rome.

    • Herod family
      • Herodias — Herodias is the wife of Herod Antipas and the mother of Salome. She is the woman whose daughter asked for John the Baptist’s head, and she also appears in literary allusions such as Flaubert’s Three Tales and Heine’s Atta Troll.

    • Jairus — Jairus is the synagogue leader whose daughter Jesus raises from the dead in the Synoptic Gospels. The story is linked to the woman healed by touching Jesus’ cloak on the way to Jairus’s house. The key phrase is Jesus’ Aramaic command ‘Talitha koum,’ addressed to Jairus’s daughter. Clues usually emphasize the healing-before-resurrection sequence and Jairus’s role as a synagogue patron.

    • Joseph Caiaphas — Joseph Caiaphas was the high priest of Jerusalem who figures in the New Testament account of Jesus’s arrest and trial. He is also identified with the Sanhedrin leadership that condemned Jesus, and later tradition links him to the phrase that one man should die for the people.

    • Lazarus of Bethany — Lazarus of Bethany is the man in the Gospel of John whom Jesus raises from the dead after visiting his tomb and weeping with Martha and Mary present. He is also the figure behind traditions for Lazarus Saturday and related Orthodox observances before Palm Sunday.

    • Life of Jesus
      • Baptism of Christ — The episode in which John the Baptist baptizes Jesus in the Jordan River at the start of Jesus’ public ministry. Christian tradition associates it with the descending dove, the divine voice identifying Jesus as the beloved or Son of God, and the appearance of the Trinity; in Eastern Orthodoxy it is celebrated on January 19.

    • locusts and wild honey — According to Mark 1:6, John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey.

    • Luke-Acts
      • Luke and Acts of the Apostles — Luke and Acts are the two New Testament books traditionally attributed to a Gentile author, identified with Luke. They form a paired narrative in the Christian Bible, with Acts serving as the sequel to the Gospel of Luke.

    • Malchus — Malchus is the servant of the high priest whose ear Peter cuts off during Jesus’ arrest in Gethsemane. In John’s account he is the only one named, and the incident becomes the site of Jesus’ final healing before the crucifixion.

    • Mary Magdalene — Mary Magdalene is the New Testament figure who first witnesses the resurrected Christ and is often portrayed as a penitent saint. Art-history clues may invoke her role in the Ghent Altarpiece, Rogier van der Weyden, Lucas Moser, or depictions of her in the desert after the Crucifixion. She is the woman the Gospels place first at the tomb after the Resurrection. Later legend links her to Provence in French tradition, and other medieval traditions made her John’s wife or a companion of John at Ephesus.

    • Miracles of Jesus
      • Jesus walking on water — Jesus walking on water is the Gospel miracle in which Jesus crosses the Sea of Galilee on the surface of the water. In Matthew’s version, Peter briefly attempts the feat himself and begins to sink.
    • Parables
      • the Prodigal Son — The Prodigal Son is the biblical figure from Luke who wastes his inheritance and is welcomed home by his father. The story inspired Rembrandt paintings and a well-known ballet by Sergei Diaghilev.
    • parables of Jesus — The parables of Jesus are the short allegorical stories in the New Testament that teach religious lessons through familiar scenes like sowing seed, wedding feasts, and household management. Famous examples include the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the Sower, and the Mustard Seed.

      • oil and wine — Oil and wine are the substances the Good Samaritan uses to treat the wounded man in the Gospel parable. The pair is a standard biblical detail from that story.

      • Parable of the Mustard Seed — The Parable of the Mustard Seed compares the growth of the Kingdom of God to a tiny seed that becomes a large tree. It appears in the Synoptic Gospels and is often paired with the Parable of the Yeast.

      • Parable of the Pearl of Great Price — The Parable of the Pearl of Great Price is a New Testament parable in which a merchant sells all he has to obtain a single precious pearl. It appears in Matthew and is especially associated with the value of heaven and total devotion.

      • Parable of the Prodigal Son — The Parable of the Prodigal Son, also called the Lost Son, appears in Luke and tells of a younger son who squanders his inheritance on wild living before returning home. His father welcomes him back with a feast and a fattened calf, provoking resentment from the older brother.

      • Parable of the Sower — The Parable of the Sower is the Gospel story in which seeds fall on different kinds of ground, including rocks and thorns, to show how listeners receive the word. Its point is that only good soil yields lasting growth. Octavia Butler also used Parable of the Sower as the title of her 1993 dystopian novel about Lauren Olamina, who creates the belief system Earthseed. After her neighborhood is destroyed, she travels north with survivors seeking a place where that faith can take root.

      • Prodigal Son — The prodigal son is the biblical figure who wastes his inheritance and then returns home to his forgiving father. The story inspired works from Rembrandt and Brancusi, including paintings and sculptures titled for his return.

      • the Good Samaritan — The Good Samaritan is the compassionate figure in Luke’s parable who stops to aid a robbed man after a priest, a Levite, and others pass by. The story answers the question “Who is my neighbor?” and centers on the Samaritan, a group viewed with hostility in Roman-era Judea.

      • the mustard seed — The mustard seed is the tiny seed in Jesus’s parable that grows into a large plant. It is used to symbolize how something very small can become unexpectedly great.

    • parables of Jesus Christ — The parables of Jesus Christ are the short didactic stories in the Gospels, including the Good Samaritan, the Prodigal Son, the Rich Man and Lazarus, and the wise and foolish virgins. They are used to convey moral and spiritual lessons through familiar scenes such as weddings, roads, and family reunions.
      • Parable of the Good Samaritan — The Parable of the Good Samaritan appears in Luke and tells of a robbed traveler aided by a Samaritan after a priest and Levite pass by. Jesus tells it in response to the question “Who is my neighbor?” to emphasize mercy across ethnic boundaries.
    • Passion of Christ
      • Thirty pieces of silver — The price Judas received for betraying Jesus, later used as a symbol of betrayal. A Khrzhizhanovsky story traces their history through episodes involving the purchase of a potter’s field, a ruined tavern-keeper, and the sack of Jerusalem.
    • Pauline Epistles — The Pauline Epistles are the New Testament letters traditionally attributed to Paul of Tarsus. They include Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, Titus, Philemon, and the pastoral epistles, and they are central to Christian theology on faith, grace, charity, and church life, with famous passages on Christian ethics.

      • Corinthians — The Corinthians are the recipients of Paul’s two New Testament epistles known for passages such as “love is patient, love is kind” and “through a glass darkly.” These letters also discuss spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues.

      • Epistle of Paul to the Romans — The Epistle of Paul to the Romans is the longest Pauline epistle in the New Testament. It includes major passages on salvation by faith, grafting branches into an olive tree, and the famous declaration that all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.

      • Epistle to Philemon — Paul’s brief prison letter asking Philemon to receive the runaway slave Onesimus as a beloved brother and to forgive him. It is the shortest Pauline epistle, a New Testament book with only one chapter, and is addressed to a Christian at Colosse.

      • Epistle to the Colossians — The Epistle to the Colossians is a Pauline letter addressed to a Christian community in Asia Minor. It emphasizes Christ as the image of the invisible God and includes teachings on putting to death earthly nature, household duties, and remembrance of Paul’s chains.

      • Epistle to the Galatians — A Pauline epistle addressed to Christians in Anatolia that argues Gentile believers do not need to follow Jewish ritual law or undergo circumcision for salvation. It emphasizes faith over the Mosaic Law, includes the fruit of the Spirit and the Hagar-and-Sarah allegory, and recounts Paul’s confrontation with Peter at Antioch and his rebuke of Peter for refusing to eat with Gentiles.

      • Epistle to the Romans — The Epistle to the Romans is Paul’s longest epistle and one of the central New Testament texts on sin, faith, and justification. It is famous for “the wages of sin is death,” for its discussion of Jew and Gentile alike being under sin, and for passages used by Protestant theology to support justification by faith. Augustine’s conversion and Karl Barth’s commentary made it especially influential.

      • First Corinthians or First Letter of Paul to the Church at Corinth — First Corinthians is Paul’s first epistle to the church he founded at Corinth in Greece. It includes the famous passage on love and discusses worship practices, spiritual gifts, and offerings for Jerusalem.

      • First Epistle to the Corinthians — A Pauline epistle in the New Testament addressed to the church at Corinth. It discusses church order and divisions in the Corinthian community, the Eucharist, marriage and celibacy, spiritual gifts, worship practices such as head coverings and women’s roles, the church as one body, and the resurrection. It is especially famous for chapter 13, the hymn to love, including “faith, hope, and love/charity,” “through a glass, darkly,” “speaking with the tongues of men and of angels,” and the line about putting away childish things. It also includes the Aramaic phrase “anathema marana tha” and a condemnation of sexual immorality in chapter 6.

      • Letter to the Romans — The Letter to the Romans is Paul’s longest epistle and one of the New Testament’s most systematic discussions of sin, grace, and justification by faith. It includes the famous statement that the wages of sin is death and Paul’s discussion of Jews and Gentiles in God’s plan.

      • pastoral epistles — The Pastoral Epistles are the Pauline letters 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus, addressed to church leaders concerned with the oversight of their flocks. They are named for the pastoral office of bishop or pastor, and quizbowl clues often mention disputed authorship and later interpolations on gender roles.

        • Epistle to Titus — The Epistle to Titus is one of the Pastoral Epistles and is addressed to Titus, a bishop of Crete. It is known for its moral instructions and for quoting the Cretan claim that all Cretans are liars.

        • Timothy and Titus — In the New Testament, the Pastoral Epistles were addressed to Timothy and Titus. These are the two apostolic associates associated with those letters.

      • Philippians — Philippians is one of Paul’s prison epistles, addressed to the church at Philippi. It urges joy, humility, and vigilance against false teachers and is the eleventh book of the New Testament.

      • Saint Timothy — Saint Timothy was a close associate of Paul and the addressee of the Pastoral Epistles that bear his name. He is traditionally linked to Ephesus and is often identified as the young man Paul tells not to let others despise his youth.

      • Second Corinthians — Second Corinthians is one of Paul’s epistles in the New Testament. It includes the warning against being unequally yoked with unbelievers and follows First Corinthians, which contains the hymn to love in chapter 13.

      • Silas — Silas, also called Silvanus, was a companion of Paul in the New Testament. He traveled with Paul after Paul’s split with Barnabas, was with him on the second missionary journey, and was his fellow prisoner at Philippi. He is associated with Paul’s missionary journeys and imprisonment, and is often identified as the envoy Paul chose after separating from Barnabas.

      • Thessalonians — The Thessalonians were the recipients of two New Testament letters traditionally attributed to Paul and placed near the letters to Timothy. The church was in Thessalonica, the capital of the Roman province of Macedonia. The first letter stresses hope for the dead, while the second warns against idleness.

      • Timothy — Timothy was Paul’s close companion and the bishop of Ephesus, remembered as the namesake of First and Second Timothy. The pastoral epistles associated with him include advice to drink a little wine for his health and a warning about those with itching ears. He is also the figure addressed in the New Testament line about not letting anyone despise youth, and later tradition links him to martyrdom in Ephesus. Clues often mention his namesake epistles as part of the pastoral letters.

      • Timothy, Titus, and Philemon — Timothy, Titus, and Philemon are the three individuals to whom New Testament epistles are addressed. Timothy is the recipient of two letters, while Titus and Philemon each have one.

      • Corinthians, Thessalonians, Timothy — The New Testament books that come in First and Second pairs are Corinthians, Thessalonians, and Timothy. These are the three Pauline epistle groups commonly labeled with ordinal numbers.

    • Revelations of St. John the Divine — Revelations of St. John the Divine is another title for the New Testament book of Revelation. It is the final book of the King James Bible and ends with the blessing, “The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with you all. Amen.”

    • Saint Matthew the Apostle — The apostle and former tax collector who is the namesake of the first Gospel. He is depicted by Caravaggio in The Calling of Saint Matthew and related Contarelli Chapel paintings, where a beam of light and Christ’s pointing hand identify him.

    • Second Timothy — Second Timothy is one of the Pauline epistles in the New Testament. It contains the line about having fought the good fight, finished the course, and kept the faith.

    • tax collectors — Tax collectors are the profession associated with Zacchaeus and Matthew in the Gospels, where they are treated as socially suspect collaborators with Rome. They appear in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector, which contrasts public piety with humility and repentance.

    • The Four Gospels — The Four Gospels are the New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which recount the life of Christ. They are often grouped together in discussions of the documentary hypothesis and the Q source.

    • Conversion of Saul
      • The Conversion of St. Paul — The Conversion of St. Paul is the biblical scene of Saul’s blinding on the road to Damascus, famously painted by Caravaggio in the Cerasi Chapel. The story is often shown with the horse, the fallen Saul, and the light that only he perceives.
  • New Testament apocrypha
    • Gospel of Judas — A Coptic Gnostic text from the Codex Tchacos that presents Judas Iscariot as receiving secret revelations from Jesus and carrying out Jesus’ plan rather than betraying him maliciously. It is known for the passage in which Jesus laughs at the disciples’ prayer and for the controversial claim that Judas’s betrayal fulfills a hidden divine plan. The work was rediscovered in fragmentary form and publicized in the 2000s after long scholarly attention.
  • Noah’s family
    • Shem, Ham, and Japheth — Shem, Ham, and Japheth are Noah’s three sons, the only surviving human family members besides Noah and their wives after the Flood.
  • numbers and symbols
    • Forty days and nights — Forty days and nights is the biblical length of the flood in Genesis, and it also appears in several other religious traditions and stories. It is linked to Lent through Jesus’ temptation in the wilderness and to other symbolic periods of trial or preparation.
  • Old Testament — The canonical collection of scriptures in Jewish and Christian traditions, called the Old Testament in Christian Bibles and the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh in Jewish usage. It runs from Genesis through Malachi and includes books such as Nahum, Haggai, Micah, and Ezekiel; its composition is often discussed through parallelism, form criticism, historicity, and source criticism involving the Jahwist, Priestly, and Elohist sources.
    • Book of Daniel — The Book of Daniel is a biblical book of visions, court tales, and apocalyptic prophecy centered on Daniel’s survival in the lions’ den. It includes the story of Belshazzar’s writing on the wall, the furnace for Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, and the disputed additions Bel and the Dragon and Susanna.

      • Abednego — Abednego is one of the three Hebrew youths from the Book of Daniel who survived the fiery furnace. He is remembered with Shadrach and Meshach as one of the companions of Daniel in Babylonian exile traditions.

      • Bel and the Dragon — An apocryphal/deuterocanonical addition to Daniel found in the Septuagint and the Apocrypha. Daniel exposes the priests of Bel as frauds by showing that they consume the offerings themselves, then destroys the idol Bel and a dragon. It also includes the episode in which Daniel survives the lions’ den after Habakkuk brings him food.

      • Belshazzar — Belshazzar is the Babylonian king from the Book of Daniel who sees the writing on the wall and is often shown in art recoiling from the divine hand. Paintings by Rembrandt, John Martin, and Washington Allston all treat his feast as a scene of ominous judgment.

      • Daniel — The Hebrew prophet associated with the Book of Daniel, where he survives a lion’s den and interprets Nebuchadnezzar’s dreams and the writing on the wall for Babylonian kings. The book also includes the fiery furnace episode with Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego, along with apocryphal stories such as Susanna and Bel and the Dragon, and visions of beasts and empires.

        • Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego — The three Hebrew youths in the Book of Daniel who refused to worship Nebuchadnezzar’s idol, were thrown by him into a fiery furnace, and emerged unharmed in Daniel 3. They are a standard biblical trio.

        • The History of the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon — The History of the Destruction of Bel and the Dragon is a deuterocanonical addition to Daniel that attacks idolatry and tells of Daniel in the lions’ den. Daniel exposes the false god Bel and kills the dragon, then survives confinement with the lions untouched.

      • Daniel 5:5 — Daniel 5:5 describes the writing on the wall during Belshazzar’s feast. The verse introduces the hand that appears and writes on the plaster of the royal palace wall.

      • Darius the Mede — Darius the Mede is the ruler who orders Daniel into the lions’ den in the Book of Daniel. The figure is traditionally treated as a Persian king, though the evidence given notes that his historicity is uncertain.

      • handwriting on the wall — The handwriting on the wall is the ominous inscription from Daniel interpreted at Belshazzar’s feast. Its message, associated with Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin, foretells the fall of a kingdom.

      • mene, mene, tekel, upharsin — Mene, mene, tekel, upharsin is the Aramaic inscription from the writing on the wall in the Book of Daniel. It literally means ‘numbered, numbered, weighed, divided.’

      • NUMBERED, NUMBERED, WEIGHED, DIVIDED — The Aramaic words mene, mene, tekel, upharsin are translated as “numbered, numbered, weighed, divided.” In Daniel, they announce the downfall of Belshazzar’s kingdom after the handwriting on the wall appears at his feast.

      • Susanna — Susanna is the biblical woman whose bathing is interrupted by the Elders in the apocryphal addition to Daniel. The scene became a major art subject, especially in versions by Artemisia Gentileschi and other Baroque painters.

      • Susanna and the Elders — Susanna and the Elders is the biblical scene in which two older men spy on and accuse a bathing woman, who resists their harassment. Artemisia Gentileschi’s treatment of the subject is especially famous for its dramatic focus on Susanna’s distress and the men’s predatory gaze.

      • The History of Susanna — The History of Susanna tells of a righteous woman falsely accused of adultery and a wise judge who exposes the lie. It is part of the deuterocanonical additions to Daniel.

      • the writing on the wall — The writing on the wall is an idiom for a warning of impending disaster, drawn from the biblical story of Belshazzar’s feast. In that story, the mysterious words “Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin” are interpreted as a sentence of doom.

      • Verses
        • Daniel 10:11 — Daniel 10:11 is the verse in which a heavenly messenger addresses Daniel as “greatly beloved” and tells him not to fear. The line continues with a call to peace and strength.
    • Jabez — Jabez is the biblical figure in 1 Chronicles who is remembered for praying that God would enlarge his territory and keep him from evil. He became widely known through Bruce Wilkinson’s bestselling Prayer of Jabez, which built a devotional message around his brief petition.
  • Parables
    • talents — Talents are the sums of money entrusted to servants in the New Testament parable of the talents. One servant multiplies his amount while another buries his, provoking the master’s anger.
  • Patriarchs

    • Benjamin — Benjamin is the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel and the ancestor of the Tribe of Benjamin. Biblical clues about him include the sale of Joseph, the blessing that calls the tribe a ravenous wolf, and the civil war narrative involving Gibeah.

    • Jacob — Jacob is the biblical Old Testament patriarch, the son of Isaac and Rebecca and the brother of Esau. He wrestled with God/an angel and was renamed Israel, the name of the nation descended from him; he fathered the twelve tribes through his twelve sons, including Joseph. His story includes the ladder to heaven at Bethel, the birthright bargain with Esau, and his years working for Laban in order to marry Rachel.

  • Places
    • Bethlehem — Bethlehem is the Judean town associated with the birth of Jesus, the Magi, the Massacre of the Innocents, and the star that guided visitors there. It also appears in the Book of Ruth as the place where Naomi returns with Ruth and where Boaz’s family line leads to David.
  • prophets and prophecy
    • false prophets — False prophets are religious deceivers who claim divine authority without truly speaking for God. Biblical passages warn against them by comparing them to wolves in sheep’s clothing and bad trees bearing bad fruit.
  • Revelation
    • New Jerusalem — New Jerusalem is the apocalyptic holy city described in Revelation and echoed in prophetic passages from Ezekiel, Isaiah, and Zechariah. It is imagined as a jeweled city descending from heaven, with pearl gates, jasper walls, and the river of the water of life.

  • Samuel — Samuel is the Hebrew prophet and judge who heard God as a child under Eli, anointed Saul and David, and confronted Saul after the Amalekite king Agag was spared. His story is central to the biblical books 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel, and later tradition includes the Witch of Endor episode.

  • theophanies
    • a whirlwind — A whirlwind is a biblical image for divine power, judgment, and revelation, especially in books like Job, Nahum, Hosea, and the accounts of Elijah. It can denote storm imagery more generally, but the key clue is the voice and presence that emerge from the storm in Job.
  • translations
    • translating the Bible — Translating the Bible is the act of rendering Scripture into another language, famously associated with the Septuagint, Jerome’s Vulgate, and Luther’s German Bible. Clues often mention the Hexapla, the Vulgate, and later vernacular versions of the New Testament.
  • Translations and editions
    • Complutensian Polyglot — The Complutensian Polyglot is a six-volume polyglot Bible printed at Alcalá for Cardinal Jiménez in the early sixteenth century. It includes Greek and Hebrew texts, a Latin Pentateuch, and a Hebrew dictionary.
  • Tribe of Judah
    • The Lion of Judah — The Lion of Judah is a Biblical royal symbol associated with the tribe of Judah and, in Rastafarian tradition, with Haile Selassie. It appears in Genesis imagery and Revelation as a conquering lion linked to divine kingship.
  • tribes of Israel
    • Dan — Dan is one of the tribes of Israel, named for a son of Jacob and Bilhah. The same word also names a rank system used in games and martial arts, such as taekwondo and go.

  • Uriah — Uriah the Hittite is the husband of Bathsheba in the biblical story where David arranges for him to be sent into battle and killed. The name also refers to the Dickens character Uriah Heep, the obsequious villain of David Copperfield.

  • widows — Widows are women whose husbands have died. In the Bible they are repeatedly paired with orphans as vulnerable members of society, and stories involving them include the widow of Zarephath, the widow of Nain, and the persistent widow who pleads before an unjust judge in Luke 18. Biblical accounts of Elisha and Jesus also include reviving the sons of widows, and many cultures treat widowhood as a distinct legal or ritual status.
• Trinity — in Nicene Christianity, one God in three distinct persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Nicaea (325) affirmed the Son’s consubstantiality with the Father against Arian teaching; Constantinople (381) affirmed the Holy Spirit’s divinity in the creed. These formulations are shared by major Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant traditions, while nontrinitarian Christian communities interpret God differently.¹⁸ It is formulated in terms of three hypostases in one ousia, and later theology describes the Father as generating the Son and the Spirit as proceeding.
  • Holy Spirit — The Holy Spirit, also called the Holy Ghost or Spiritus Sanctus, is the third person of the Christian Trinity. It is described in Christian theology as God’s presence, the Lord and Giver of Life, and as the source of inspiration and divine guidance. It is associated with Pentecost, baptismal descent like a dove, and the fruits of the Spirit. The Holy Spirit is affirmed in the Nicene Creed; the filioque controversy concerns its relation to the Father and the Son. In Christian theology, blasphemy against the Holy Spirit is treated as the uniquely unforgivable sin.
    • The Spirit — In Christian scripture, the Spirit is contrasted with the letter of the old covenant and is linked to new life in 2 Corinthians and John 3:6. The Spirit is also the title answer for Will Eisner’s masked comic-strip hero, Denny Colt, from The Spirit and its film adaptation.
  • The Holy Trinity — The Christian doctrine that God exists as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit in one divine substance, or as one God in three persons. It was defended by figures such as Athanasius and Hilary of Poitiers, centered on homoousios, opposed by anti-Trinitarian movements and thinkers, and became the standard position of most mainstream Christian churches. It appears in debates over Arianism and in Masaccio’s fresco The Holy Trinity at Santa Maria Novella.
• Nicene Creed — the statement of Christian belief formulated at Nicaea (325) and expanded at Constantinople (381); affirms Jesus as “of one substance” (homoousios) with the Father. It was written against Arianism, begins with “Credo in unum Deum,” and is used in major Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and Protestant traditions. Later versions may include the Filioque clause.

  • filioque — Filioque is the Latin phrase meaning “and from the Son,” added to the Nicene Creed to describe the procession of the Holy Spirit. It became a major point of controversy between Western Christianity and Eastern churches, especially at Florence and in later schism debates.

  • filioque clause — The filioque clause is the Latin addition to the Nicene Creed that says the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. It became a major point of dispute between the Western and Eastern Churches and is one of the theological issues behind the Great Schism.

  • Homoousios — Homoousios is the Greek term meaning that the Father and the Son are of the same substance. Athanasius helped secure its place in the Nicene Creed, and it was opposed by the similar-sounding homoiousios.

• Paul of Tarsus — the most prolific New Testament author; his letters (epistles) shaped Christian theology, especially regarding faith, grace, and the universality of the gospel to Gentiles. He is traditionally identified with Saul of Tarsus, who converted after a vision of Jesus on the road to Damascus. In Acts he appears with Barnabas and Silas, at the Council of Jerusalem, and in the incident at Antioch; he is also traditionally linked to martyrdom in Rome. His letters are commonly associated with Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, and Titus, and his story includes Ananias, imprisonment, and a shipwreck on Malta.

• Sacraments — sacred rites; Catholics recognize seven (baptism, Eucharist, confirmation, penance, anointing of the sick, holy orders, matrimony); Protestants typically recognize two (baptism and Eucharist/Communion).

  • absolution — Absolution is the Catholic act of forgiveness from sin, especially in the Sacrament of Penance when a priest pronounces formal pardon. It is associated with contrition, confession, repentance, and the idea of being freed from guilt rather than simply performing penance.

  • anointing — Anointing is the Christian ritual of applying blessed oil, especially in sacraments such as anointing of the sick. It is linked to chrism, last rites, and the biblical passage in James 5:14-15.

  • Anointing of the Sick — The Catholic sacrament of healing and preparation for serious illness or death, administered with holy oil for spiritual comfort, remission of sins, and, in traditional practice, anointing of the limbs with chrism. It is one of the seven sacraments, closely linked to Viaticum (the Eucharist given for the journey of death), and draws scriptural support from James 5.

  • baptism — Baptism is the Christian sacrament or rite of washing that initiates a person into the church, traditionally with water poured, sprinkled, or in some traditions immersed. Clues often mention John baptizing Jesus in the Jordan, the Trinitarian formula, baptism of desire or blood, and believer’s baptism in some Protestant groups.

    • baptisms — Baptism is the Christian rite of washing away sin, classically performed in water and associated with John the Baptist. The same word can also point to monumental baptisteries and baptismal vessels in art and architecture.

    • Infant baptism — Infant baptism is the Christian practice of administering baptism to infants or young children. It is especially associated with Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches and is contrasted with credo baptism.

  • Confession — The Christian sacrament in which sins are admitted to a priest and absolution is given, associated in Catholic practice with the seal of confession, venial and mortal sin, and the formula ego te absolvo. It is also called penance or reconciliation, and is linked to repentance, contrition, satisfaction, the Kyrie, and the private booth used in the Roman Rite. In medieval morality drama such as Everyman, confession gives the title character the means to continue his journey; related contexts include the Fifth Step of Alcoholics Anonymous and prayers for forgiveness in Judaism and Islam.

  • confirmation — Confirmation is the Christian sacrament that completes baptismal initiation and is usually associated with the laying on of hands and anointing by a bishop. In Catholicism it is often grouped with Baptism and Eucharist as one of the sacraments of initiation. Quizbowl clues may mention RCIA, the Holy Ghost, and the ancient practice of chrismation or anointing with oil. It is also tied to receiving the Holy Spirit in Acts and to a change in status within the church.

  • sacrament — A sacrament is a Christian rite such as baptism or the Eucharist, understood in Catholic theology as an outward sign of inward grace. Protestant traditions often treat some of these as ordinances rather than grace-bearing acts, while Catholicism recognizes seven sacraments.

  • Sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church — The Roman Catholic Church recognizes seven sacraments, the sacred rites administered by the church. Among them are Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist, with other sacraments including Matrimony and Holy Orders.

• Eucharist (Communion, Lord’s Supper) — the re-enactment of Jesus’s Last Supper; Catholics hold the doctrine of transubstantiation (bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ); most Protestants hold a symbolic or spiritual interpretation.

• foot washing — Foot washing is the ritual cleaning of another person’s feet, especially in Christian liturgy on Maundy Thursday. It recalls Jesus washing the disciples’ feet in John 13 and appears in traditions such as wudu and the Moravian Lovefeast.

Key history

• Council of Nicaea (325 CE) — convened by Emperor Constantine I; condemned Arianism and established the Nicene Creed.

• Great Schism (1054 CE) — the formal split between the Roman Catholic Church (West) and Eastern Orthodox Church (East), over papal authority, the filioque clause, and other disputes.
  • Pope Leo IX and Michael Cerularius — Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius were the central figures in the 1054 rupture between Rome and Constantinople. Their excommunications helped trigger the permanent schism between the Western and Eastern churches.
• Protestant Reformation (1517) — Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses criticized indulgences and papal authority; key Reformers include Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli. It was the sixteenth-century movement that fractured western Christianity into Protestant traditions such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anabaptism; the Diet of Worms and the Ninety-Five Theses are standard associated events.

  • Ninety-Five Theses on the Power of Indulgences — Martin Luther’s 1517 attack on the sale of indulgences and the Treasury of Merit, traditionally associated with the church door at Wittenberg. It opens by calling believers to repentance, argues that genuine repentance matters more than purchased forgiveness, and became a foundational text of the Protestant Reformation.

  • the Reformation — The Reformation was the broad religious movement that produced Protestantism, including the Anglican, Calvinist, and Lutheran traditions. It is commonly dated from Luther’s Ninety-five Theses and spread unevenly across Europe, with Ireland remaining largely resistant.

  • The Ninety-Five Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences — Martin Luther’s 1517 attack on the sale of indulgences, traditionally said to have been posted at Wittenberg. The theses helped spark the Protestant Reformation and drew a response from Pope Leo X in Exsurge Domine; they are among the best-known documents of early Protestant criticism of the Church.

  • Radical Reformation

    • Michael Servetus — Michael Servetus was a Spanish theologian and anti-Trinitarian writer who was burned in Geneva under John Calvin’s authority. His best-known work, the Restitution of Christianity, included an early description of pulmonary circulation and condemned doctrines such as infant baptism and the Trinity.
• Five Solae — the core principles of Lutheran/Protestant theology: Sola Scriptura (Scripture alone), Sola Fide (faith alone), Sola Gratia (grace alone), Solus Christus (Christ alone), Soli Deo Gloria (glory to God alone).
  • sola gratia — Sola gratia is the Protestant doctrine that salvation comes by grace alone rather than by human merit. It is often discussed alongside sola fide in debates over Romans and the Reformation.

• Counter-Reformation — the Catholic Church’s response to Protestantism, including the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and the founding of the Jesuits by Ignatius of Loyola. It also produced institutions such as the Roman Inquisition and the Index of Prohibited Books, and was promoted by figures like Charles Borromeo and Francis de Sales.

• Church of England (Anglicanism) — established by Henry VIII in the 1530s after his break with Rome.

• Catholic Church
  • inquisitions
    • Roman Inquisition — The Roman Inquisition was the Catholic Church’s central anti-heresy tribunal created in 1542, later renamed the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. It is also the institutional setting behind major microhistories such as The Cheese and the Worms.
  • Papal documents
    • papal bulls — Papal bulls are formal decrees issued by the Vatican and named for their lead seal. They are commonly titled from their opening Latin words and have been used for major papal pronouncements from medieval condemnations to modern jubilees.

      • Exsurge Domine — Exsurge Domine is the 1520 papal bull by Leo X condemning Martin Luther and demanding that many of the 95 Theses be retracted. Its title means ‘Arise, O Lord,’ and it was burned before Luther’s excommunication followed.

      • Golden Bulls — Golden Bulls were medieval charters or decrees sealed with gold, including the famous 1356 Golden Bull of Charles IV. Other examples include the Golden Bulls of Hungary, Sicily, and Rimini, which dealt with rights of nobles, bishops, and the Teutonic Knights.

      • taxation of clergy
        • Clericis Laicos — Clericis Laicos was a 1296 bull of Boniface VIII that barred rulers from taxing clergy without papal approval. It was aimed at royal attempts, especially by Philip IV of France, to seize church revenue.
      • Unam Sanctam — The 1302 papal bull of Boniface VIII asserting the supremacy of spiritual over temporal or secular authority. Issued during Boniface VIII’s conflict with Philip IV of France, it famously declared that every human creature must be subject to the Roman pontiff and was later cited as one of the most extreme medieval claims for papal power.
  • Council of Constance — The Council of Constance was a 1414–1418 ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, held under Emperor Sigismund, that resolved the Western Schism by deposing antipope John XXIII, accepting Gregory XII’s resignation, and electing Martin V. It also condemned Jan Hus, Jerome of Prague, and John Wycliffe, and is associated with the decree Sacrosancta asserting conciliar authority over the pope.
• Catholic councils
  • Lateran Councils — The Lateran Councils were ecumenical councils held at the Lateran Palace in Rome, including the landmark Fourth Lateran Council of 1215. They addressed issues such as the Concordat of Worms, transubstantiation, and regulations on Jews.
    • Lateran Palace — The Lateran Palace in Rome is remembered for the ecumenical councils held there, especially the Fourth Lateran Council. Those councils addressed church discipline, transubstantiation, and other medieval doctrinal questions.
  • The Fourth Lateran Council — The Fourth Lateran Council was the major 1215 church council under Innocent III, known for its sweeping medieval reforms. It mandated annual confession, condemned heresies including the Waldensians, and helped define the doctrine of transubstantiation.
• Christian councils
  • ecumenical councils — Ecumenical councils are formal worldwide church gatherings called to define doctrine and settle disputes. Examples include Nicaea, Chalcedon, Trent, and Vatican II, as well as the councils that ended the Western Schism and condemned figures such as Jan Hus. The term also covers analogous Buddhist councils such as those associated with the Pāli canon and the first monastic recitations.

    • Council of Chalcedon — The Council of Chalcedon was the 451 ecumenical council that condemned Monophysitism and affirmed Christ as one person in two natures, divine and human. It is also remembered for the Tome of Leo, the deposition of Dioscorus, and the disputed Canon 28 about Constantinople’s rank. Quizbowl clues often identify it as the fourth ecumenical council.

    • Council of Constantinople — The Council of Constantinople refers to several ecumenical councils held in that city, including the one in 381 that expanded the Nicene Creed. Later councils there dealt with controversies such as Nestorianism, Monothelitism, and the Photian schism.

    • Council of Ephesus — The Council of Ephesus in 431 condemned Nestorianism and affirmed Mary as Theotokos rather than Christotokos. It is remembered as the third ecumenical council and is especially important in Eastern Christian doctrine.

    • Councils of Lyon — The Councils of Lyon were two 13th-century church councils held in the French city of Lyon. The first excommunicated Frederick II, and the second sought to reunite the Eastern and Western churches.

    • First Council of Constantinople — The First Council of Constantinople was a church council called by Theodosius I in 381. It expanded the Nicene Creed by clarifying the Holy Spirit’s status as equal in essence with the Father and the Son, and it helped end the Arian controversy.

    • First Council of Nicaea — The 325 CE ecumenical council convened by Constantine I that became the first ecumenical council of the Christian church. It condemned Arianism, produced the Nicene Creed, affirmed the Son as of the same substance as the Father, and dealt with the date of Easter and disputes such as the Meletian schism.
      • The Council of - Nicea- — The Council of Nicaea was an early ecumenical council that affirmed core Christian doctrine, including the divinity and humanity of Jesus and the role of the Holy Spirit. It is especially remembered for its doctrinal authority in defining orthodoxy.

    • Nicaea I — The First Council of Nicaea met in 325 under Constantine to confront Arianism. It is famous for producing the Nicene Creed and becoming the first ecumenical council of the Christian church. The council helped define orthodox Trinitarian doctrine.

    • Second Council of Ephesus — The Second Council of Ephesus was the 431 church council that condemned Nestorianism and affirmed Cyril’s position on Christ. It is also known as the Robber Synod in its later 449 reuse, when Chalcedon rejected the pro-monophysite decisions taken there.

    • Second Council of Nicaea — The Second Council of Nicaea, held in 787, ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm by restoring the veneration of icons. It was the seventh ecumenical council and distinguished reverence for images from the worship due only to God.

    • the Council of Chalcedon — The Council of Chalcedon was the 451 ecumenical council convoked by Marcian near Constantinople. It condemned Eutyches and other opponents, affirmed the Tome of Leo, and defined Christological doctrine against Monophysitism.

    • the Council of Ferrara-Florence — The Council of Ferrara-Florence was a fifteenth-century ecumenical council begun in Ferrara and later moved to Florence because of plague. It tried to restore unity between the Latin West and the Byzantine East, but the agreement was later rejected in Constantinople.

    • Third Lateran Council — The Third Lateran Council was convened by Pope Alexander III in 1179 and reformed papal elections by requiring a two-thirds majority of the cardinals. It also condemned the Cathars and Waldensians. It is a standard clue for medieval church councils because it formalized procedures for electing a pope by conclave.

• Pope Callixtus II — Pope Callixtus II, born Guy of Burgundy, ruled from 1119 to 1124 and called the First Lateran Council in 1123. He is also linked to the later compilation of letters in the Codex Calixtinus and to efforts around the Truce of God.

• Western Schism
  • Council of Pisa — This 1409 ecumenical council met in Pisa in an attempt to end the Western Schism by deposing both rival popes, but its election of Alexander V was rejected by the claimants and later superseded by the Council of Constance. It is associated with Pisa, the Italian city also known for the Leaning Tower.

• schisms — Schisms are major splits within a religious body, such as the Great Schism between Eastern Orthodoxy and Catholicism and the Western Schism in the late medieval papacy. The term also appears in Buddhist history for divisions within the sangha.

• Bohemian Reformation
  • Hussites — The Hussites were a pre-Reformation Czech religious movement that followed Jan Hus after his execution at the Council of Constance. They fought the Hussite Wars against Catholic forces, and Jan Žižka and later Prokop the Great led their military campaigns, using wagon-fort tactics and defeating several crusades. The movement split into moderate Utraquists and radical Taborites, helped shape the Bohemian Reformation, and was associated with the First Defenestration of Prague.

    • Jerome of Prague — Jerome of Prague was a Bohemian reformer associated with Jan Hus and the Hussite movement. He was burned at the stake at the Council of Constance after attempts to spread his views in eastern Europe.

    • Utraquists — The Utraquists were the moderate Hussite faction that insisted the laity receive communion in both bread and wine. They ultimately defeated the radicals at Lipany and also went by names such as Calixtines.

• canon law — Canon law is the body of rules that governs the Catholic Church and its internal organization. Questions on it may mention the Decretum of Gratian, the False Decretals, or the 1983 Code of Canon Law.
  • Decretum
    • Gratian — Gratian was the 12th-century canon lawyer whose Decretum became a foundational compilation of canon law. His work helped make Bologna a major center for legal scholarship and remained authoritative until the early 20th century.
• Church of England
  • Offices
    • Archbishop of Canterbury — The Archbishop of Canterbury is the highest-ranking bishop in the Church of England and the historical head of that church. Holders of the office include Thomas Becket, Thomas Cranmer, and William Laud, and the post is tied to the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles.
      • The Archbishop of Canterbury — The Archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop of the Church of England and a long-standing religious office in English history. Thomas Becket held the position before his famous conflict with Henry II, while Offa avoided its political implications through his ties to Pope Adrian I.
• Martin Luther

  • 95 Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences — The 95 Theses on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences was Martin Luther’s critique of the sale of indulgences. Its posting at Wittenberg is traditionally linked to the start of the Protestant Reformation.

  • writings

    • 95 Theses — Martin Luther’s critique of the Catholic Church’s sale of indulgences and related abuses. Traditionally dated to 1517 at Wittenberg, it is treated as the spark of the Protestant Reformation and is associated with Pope Leo X’s response and the events leading toward the Diet of Worms.
• Catholic Church and the Holocaust
  • John Cornwell — John Cornwell is a Catholic historian and author best known for Hitler’s Pope, a critical study of Pope Pius XII and the Vatican. His work often examines the relationship between Catholicism, politics, and modern history.
• Catholic Church censorship
  • the Index of Forbidden Books — The Index of Forbidden Books was the Catholic Church’s official list of censored works. Maintained for centuries and withdrawn in 1966, it named books judged heretical or immoral.
• Catholic social teaching
  • distributism — Distributism is a Catholic-inspired economic philosophy that seeks widespread private property ownership as a third way between capitalism and socialism. Chesterton and Belloc defended it in works such as Outline of Sanity, and its imagery often includes the slogan of “three acres and a cow.”
• Anglican liturgy
  • The Book of Common Prayer — The Book of Common Prayer is the Anglican liturgical book compiled under Thomas Cranmer. It standardized worship and supplied familiar English phrases such as “ashes to ashes” and “till death do us part.”
• Archbishops of Canterbury
  • St. Augustine of Canterbury — St. Augustine of Canterbury was sent by Pope Gregory I to convert the Anglo-Saxons and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He converted Aethelbert of Kent and is linked to the great Christmas Day conversion of Kentish subjects in 597.
• Catholic Church in the United States
  • John Carroll — John Carroll was the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States and a founder of Georgetown University. He also laid the cornerstone for the Basilica of the Assumption in Baltimore.
• Catholic Church sexual abuse scandal
  • John J. Geoghan — John J. Geoghan was a Catholic priest convicted in a major clerical sexual abuse scandal. He was sentenced in 2002 for indecent battery and faced additional trials for similar allegations.
• Catholic emancipation in the United Kingdom
  • Catholics in the United Kingdom — These Catholics in the United Kingdom were the focus of political emancipation campaigns in the nineteenth century. Their rights were advanced by figures such as Daniel O’Connell and by the 1829 Relief Act, which let them sit in Parliament.

Early theology and councils

• Origen of Alexandria (c. 184–253 CE) — one of the most prolific and controversial early Christian theologians; proposed allegorical biblical interpretation; his doctrines (including a pre-existence of souls and possible universal salvation) were declared heretical posthumously at the Second Council of Constantinople (553 CE). He also compiled the Hexapla, a six-column comparison of biblical texts, and wrote Against Celsus.

• Tertullian (c. 155–220 CE) — early North African theologian and apologist; first major Christian writer in Latin; coined the term trinitas (Trinity); later joined the rigorist Montanist movement; known for the rhetorical challenge “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” He was from Carthage and wrote works such as Apology, defending Christianity and attacking heresy.

• Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296–373 CE) — bishop who championed Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism; exiled five times for his position; his defense of homoousios (“of one substance”) was decisive at Nicaea; the phrase Athanasius contra mundum (“Athanasius against the world”) describes his isolated defense of Trinitarian orthodoxy. He wrote On the Incarnation and the Life of St. Anthony, and he was repeatedly exiled for refusing to accept Arian theology.

• Cappadocian Fathers — three 4th-century theologians who refined Trinitarian doctrine after Nicaea: Basil of Caesarea (c. 330–379), his brother Gregory of Nyssa (c. 335–395), and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus (329–390); distinguished between ousia (one divine substance) and hypostasis (three persons), the formula that became orthodox. They are also called the Three Cappocians and were named for Cappadocia in modern-day Turkey. Basil of Caesarea is also known as Basil the Great. They are remembered for opposing Arianism.
  • Gregory of Nyssa — Gregory of Nyssa was a Cappadocian Father and the brother of Basil the Great. He is often cited for defending the Trinity, arguing for universal salvation, and developing ideas such as epektasis.
• Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE) — the most influential Western theologian; bishop in North Africa; his Confessions is a spiritual autobiography addressed to God, famous for “our heart is restless until it rests in Thee”; his City of God contrasts the earthly city (Rome, pride) with the City of God (the Church, salvation); shaped Western doctrines of original sin, grace, and predestination; opposed the Donatists and Pelagians.
  • City of God — City of God is St. Augustine of Hippo’s great work contrasting the earthly city with the divine city and defining a society as an assemblage of beings bound by shared loves. Cidade de Deus is also the title of Fernando Meirelles’s 2002 film about gang violence in a Rio favela, narrated by Rocket and centered on Li’l Zé.

• Jerome (c. 347–420 CE) — biblical scholar and priest; produced the Vulgate, the Latin translation of the Bible that became the standard text of the Western Catholic Church for over a millennium; known for his ascetic practices and correspondence with notable women of the Roman aristocracy. Jerome was a fourth-century Christian scholar and ascetic from Dalmatia who spent years in the desert before settling in Bethlehem. He produced the Vulgate under Pope Damasus I and wrote works defending virginity and attacking Jovinian.

• Council of Constantinople (381 CE) — the First Council of Constantinople; affirmed the divinity of the Holy Spirit (against Pneumatomachi) and completed the Nicene Creed in its current form; established Constantinople as second in honor after Rome.

• Council of Ephesus (431 CE) — condemned Nestorianism; affirmed Mary as Theotokos (“God-bearer”) against Nestorius, who preferred Christotokos (“Christ-bearer”); the council split the Church, as the Assyrian Church of the East rejected its decisions.

• Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) — defined Jesus Christ as one person in two complete natures (divine and human), “without confusion, change, division, or separation” (the Chalcedonian Definition); rejected Monophysitism; Oriental Orthodox churches (Coptic, Ethiopian, Armenian, Syriac) rejected this council and remain non-Chalcedonian.

• Arianism — the heresy taught by Arius of Alexandria (c. 256–336 CE) that the Son was a created being, not co-eternal or co-equal with the Father; condemned at Nicaea; persisted among Germanic tribes for centuries.

• Gnosticism — a diverse set of 2nd-century religious movements; generally taught that the material world was created by an inferior or evil demiurge; that humans contain a divine spark (pneuma) trapped in matter; and that salvation comes through secret knowledge (gnosis); major groups include Valentinians and Sethians; Nag Hammadi library (1945) contains key Gnostic texts.

  • Abraxas — Abraxas is a Gnostic divine name associated with a 365-letter or 365-value cosmology and with the demon-god in Hermann Hesse’s Demian. It also appears in modern fantasy and horror as a powerful occult figure, including Lovecraftian and demonic uses of the name.

  • Gnostics — The Gnostics were early Christian and related religious groups that emphasized secret knowledge as the path to salvation. They often contrasted the evil material world with a higher spiritual realm and produced texts such as the Gospel of Thomas.

  • Nag Hammadi — Nag Hammadi is the Egyptian site associated with the famous cache of Gnostic texts discovered in 1945. The find included works such as the Gospel of Thomas and the Gospel of Truth, making the town a key name in studies of early Christianity and Gnosticism.

  • Sophia — Sophia is the Gnostic personification of divine wisdom, often linked with the feminine principle and the creation myths surrounding the Demiurge. The name also refers to the great cathedral of Hagia Sophia and to philosophical and theological traditions of Holy Wisdom.

  • Valentinus — Valentinus was a second-century Gnostic thinker who founded Valentinianism, with major centers in Rome and Alexandria. The name is also associated with Saint Valentine, a later Christian martyr linked to secret marriages.

  • demiurge — The demiurge is the Gnostic false creator who fashioned and rules the material world, sometimes identified with Yaldabaoth or with the Old Testament God. In Plato’s Timaeus, the term also names the craftsman-like divine maker who orders the cosmos.

• Nestorianism — the doctrine associated with Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, that Christ has two separate persons (one divine, one human) rather than one; condemned at Ephesus (431); the Assyrian Church of the East preserves Nestorian-adjacent theology. It emphasized a sharp distinction between Christ’s divine and human natures and rejected the title Theotokos, or Mother of God, for Mary. The tradition later spread eastward into Persia, India, and Tang-era China.
  • Nestorian Christianity — Nestorian Christianity was an early Christian tradition associated with the teachings of Nestorius. It spread widely in Asia and was especially prominent in Central Asia and among some Mongol peoples.

• Monophysitism — the view that Christ has only one (divine) nature, not two; condemned at Chalcedon (451); Oriental Orthodox churches prefer the term miaphysitism (one united nature). It is also associated with Eutyches, and the term Monophysite heresy is sometimes used for it.

• Pelagianism — the teaching of the British monk Pelagius (c. 360–418) that humans have free will to choose good without divine grace; opposed and condemned largely through Augustine’s efforts; Semi-Pelagianism softened the position but was also condemned. It is also associated with Pelagius, a British cleric, and Caelestius; it rejects original sin and the need for baptism to remove it, holding that people can begin salvation through their own effort before receiving divine grace. It was condemned by church councils at Diospolis, Carthage, and Ephesus.
  • Pelagius — Pelagius was a British theologian whose teachings on free will and grace became the basis of Pelagianism. Augustine opposed him for denying inherited original sin and for insisting that human beings could work toward salvation without divine grace.

• Donatism — a 4th-century North African schism holding that sacraments administered by clergy who had lapsed under persecution (traditores) were invalid; Augustine argued that sacramental validity depends on the office, not the personal holiness of the minister. It opposed Caecilian’s ordination and was later condemned after Augustine of Hippo attacked it. The movement was named for the bishop Donatus of Carthage and became associated with rigorist groups such as the Circumcellions and the Agonistici.

• Catharism — a dualist heresy widespread in southern France (Languedoc) and northern Italy in the 12th–13th centuries; Cathars (or Albigensians) believed in two principles (good and evil) and rejected the physical world as corrupt; suppressed by the Albigensian Crusade (1209–1229) and the Inquisition. Its adherents were also called Cathars or Albigensians. The movement is sometimes associated with the consolamentum and an ascetic elite of perfects, and its suppression is linked to Pope Innocent III and Simon de Montfort during the Albigensian Crusade.

• Church Fathers

  • Athanasius — Athanasius was the Alexandrian theologian who opposed Arianism and defended the doctrine later summarized in the Nicene Creed. He is also associated with anti-Arian writings such as Against the Heathens and the Letter to Eusebius.

  • Origen Adamantius — Origen Adamantius was an early Christian theologian known for the Hexapla and for speculative doctrines such as apokatastasis and universal salvation. He is also remembered for the tradition that he castrated himself after taking Matthew 19 too literally.

  • Saint Isidore of Seville — Saint Isidore of Seville was a Visigothic bishop and Church doctor in Spain who succeeded his brother Leander as archbishop of Seville. He is remembered for the twenty-book encyclopedia Etymologies and for anti-Jewish theological works.

  • St Isidore of Seville — St. Isidore of Seville was an Archbishop of Seville and author of the encyclopedic Etymologiae. He has been called the last scholar of the ancient world for his attempt to reconcile classical learning with early Christian thought.

  • St. Athanasius — St. Athanasius was the Patriarch of Alexandria and a major opponent of Arianism. He wrote the Life of St. Antony and was exiled after controversy before the Synod of Tyre.

  • Eusebius of Caesarea — Eusebius of Caesarea was an early Christian bishop and historian, often called the Father of Church History. He served as bishop of Caesarea and wrote Ecclesiastical History and Life of Constantine, both central sources for the early church and the Council of Nicaea. He is also associated with On the Martyrs of Palestine, in which he recorded accounts of persecutions he witnessed.

  • Saint Ambrose — Ambrose of Milan was a bishop, theologian, and major Church Father of the late Roman Empire. He had been a Roman governor of Aemilia-Liguria before his unexpected election as bishop of Milan in 374. He opposed Arianism, confronted Emperor Theodosius and imposed public penance on him after the massacre at Thessalonica, and later became a model bishop for Augustine, helping influence Augustine’s conversion to Christianity. He is associated with Latin hymns such as Deus Creator omnium, works including Hexaemeron and De officiis ministrorum, the Ambrosian rite, and the hymn Te Deum.

  • Saint Athanasius — Saint Athanasius was the patriarch of Alexandria who defended Nicene Christianity against Arianism. He was exiled repeatedly and is known for works such as Discourses Against the Arians and for his role at the Council of Nicaea.

  • Saint Irenaeus — The 2nd-century bishop of Lugdunum (Lyon) who wrote Against Heresies against Gnosticism. He helped define heresy in early Christianity, stressed the authority of all four Gospels, and is associated with the idea that Christ’s Incarnation “recapitulates” humanity.

  • St. Basil — St. Basil was a fourth-century Cappadocian church father who became bishop of Caesarea and wrote influential theological works on the Trinity and Holy Spirit. Quiz clues may also reference his place in Eastern Orthodox monastic rules and his role in Christmas traditions in Greece and Bulgaria.

  • St. Jerome or Eusebius Hieronymus — St. Jerome, also called Eusebius Hieronymus, was an ascetic scholar best known for translating the Bible into Latin as the Vulgate. He served Pope Damasus I, wrote against several theological opponents, and is often depicted beating his chest with a rock.

  • St. John Chrysostom — The fourth-century Archbishop of Constantinople, a Byzantine preacher and theologian known for powerful preaching and the epithet “Golden Mouthed.” His sermons include On the Statues and Against the Games and the Theaters. After serving as patriarch of Constantinople, he was exiled following conflict with Eudoxia and Theophilus of Alexandria. He is associated with homilies on Romans and the Divine Liturgy that bears his name in the Byzantine liturgical tradition.

• Early Christian theologians
  • Origen — Origen was a third-century Alexandrian theologian and biblical scholar known for the Hexapla and Contra Celsum. His writings include On First Principles, and he is associated with ideas such as the pre-existence of souls and universal salvation.
• Early Christian councils
  • The Council of Nicaea — The Council of Nicaea was Constantine’s first general council of the Christian church in 325. It is famous for the Arian controversy and for producing the Nicene Creed after debate over whether Christ was homoousios or homoiousios with the Father.
• Patriarchs of Alexandria
  • Cyril of Alexandria — Influential patriarch of Alexandria who clashed with Nestorius over Christology and whether Mary should be called Theotokos or Christotokos. He is associated with the Council of Ephesus and with the bitter Alexandrian politics surrounding Hypatia and Orestes, as well as the expulsion of Alexandria’s Jewish population and the controversy over Hypatia’s murder.
• Christian doctrine
  • original sin — Original sin is the Christian doctrine that humanity inherits a fallen nature from Adam and Eve. It is tied to Augustine, the debates with Pelagianism and Jansenism, and Catholic teachings that baptism cleanses the inherited stain. Another recurring clue is the Immaculate Conception, which holds that Mary was preserved from it.
• Priscillianism
  • Priscillian — Priscillian was a bishop of Ávila who was executed in 385 for alleged sorcery and heresy. He became the namesake of Priscillianism, an early Christian movement associated with ascetic and Gnostic ideas in Spain and southern Gaul.
• Christian heresies
  • the Bogomils — The Bogomils were a medieval Bulgarian heretical movement with strong dualist beliefs. They rejected the established church, marriage, and sex, and treated the material world as evil.
• Christological heresies

  • adoptionism — Adoptionism is the heresy that Jesus was an ordinary man who became God’s son at baptism or resurrection. The Spanish form was associated with Felix of Urgel and condemned by Alcuin at the Council of Frankfurt. A later “neo” version was advanced by Peter Abelard.

  • Apollinarianism — Apollinarianism taught that Christ’s divine Logos replaced the rational human soul in Jesus. It is associated with Apollinaris of Laodicea and was later absorbed into Monophysite-leaning Christological debate.

  • Arianism — The early Christian Christological doctrine associated with Arius of Alexandria that taught the Son or Christ was created by God the Father, before all things, and therefore subordinate to him, not coequal or coeternal, not fully divine, and not of the same substance as the Father. It was condemned by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, a council convened by Constantine to address the controversy, and was opposed by Athanasius. Despite condemnation, it survived for centuries among some Germanic and Gothic peoples.

• Church councils

  • Fourth Lateran Council — The major church council convened by Innocent III in 1215. It defined or endorsed transubstantiation, supported the Fifth Crusade, and issued reforms including the Easter duty. It also restricted new religious orders and required distinctive dress for Jews and Muslims in Europe.

  • synods — Synods are church councils or assemblies, including famous examples at Dort and Whitby. The Synod of Whitby decided Northumbria should follow the Roman calculation of Easter.

• councils and synods
  • Synod of Whitby — The Synod of Whitby was the 664 Northumbrian church meeting where Oswiu chose the Roman method for calculating Easter over the Ionan practice. Held at St. Hilda’s abbey, it also settled disputes about monastic tonsure and strengthened Roman influence in Anglo-Saxon England. Wilfrid argued for the Roman side against Colman and the monks of Iona.
• Early Christian heresies
  • Monarchianism — Monarchianism is an early Christian doctrine that denies distinct persons in the Trinity. Its modalist form, linked to Sabellius, treats Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as different modes of a single divine entity.
• Early Christian sects

  • Donatists — The Donatists were a North African Christian sect that rejected bishops they regarded as traditores, especially after the election dispute over Caecilian of Carthage. They were repeatedly condemned by councils under Constantine, and their militant followers, the Circumcellions, became notorious in late antique church history.

  • Ebionites — The Ebionites were a Jewish-Christian sect that insisted on strict observance of the Torah and rejected Paul’s writings. Early Church Fathers such as Irenaeus, Origen, and Justin Martyr criticized them, and their name is often linked to a word meaning “the poor.”

• early Church fathers
  • Polycarp — Polycarp was the second-century bishop of Smyrna and an important early Christian martyr. His Letter to the Philippians is a key witness to the early New Testament, and tradition says he was burned and then stabbed when the fire failed to consume him.
• Gnostic texts
  • Gnostic Gospels — Noncanonical Christian texts associated with Gnosticism, a tradition that treats matter as evil and emphasizes secret knowledge. They are said to preserve secret teachings of Jesus and are associated with the Nag Hammadi discovery in Egypt. Examples include the Gospels of Thomas, Philip, and Truth.
    • Gospel of Philip — The Gospel of Philip is a Nag Hammadi text associated with Gnostic Christianity. It is especially known for its passages concerning Mary Magdalene and the idea that Jesus and Mary were married.
  • Nag Hammadi Library — The Nag Hammadi Library is the cache of Coptic codices discovered in Egypt in 1945, famous for preserving many noncanonical early Christian writings. It includes works such as the Gospel of Thomas and The Thunder, Perfect Mind, making it central to study of Gnosticism.
    • Gospel of Thomas — A Gnostic text found at Nag Hammadi that preserves 114 sayings of Jesus. Unlike the canonical gospels, it is mainly a sayings collection rather than a narrative of Jesus’ life. Its secret sayings are often associated with early Christian mysticism and noncanonical traditions. It survives in Coptic form and in Greek fragments, and is traditionally attributed to Thomas the apostle. It has also been linked in popular culture to the film Stigmata.
• Heresies

  • Alianism — Arianism was the Christian heresy condemned at Nicaea in 325 for denying that the Son is fully divine in the same sense as the Father. It treated the Son as begotten rather than unbegotten and therefore subordinate to God.

  • Bogomil — Bogomil was a medieval Christian heresy that began in 10th-century Bulgaria. Its adherents rejected baptism, the Eucharist, church buildings, and the Orthodox Church’s organization, and later also condemned marriage, meat, and wine.

  • Bogomils — The Bogomils were a medieval dualist Christian sect or movement centered in Bulgaria and the Balkans, often described as neo-Manichaean. Associated with Basil the Physician, they taught that Satan created the material world and opposed the good God, and they rejected the material world, baptism, and marriage. The sect was named for the priest Bogomil, whose name means “dear to God,” and it influenced later Balkan heresies such as Catharism and the Bosnian Patarenes.

  • Marcion — Marcion was an early Christian heretic from Sinope who rejected the Old Testament god as inferior to the loving god revealed by Jesus. He sharply separated the wrathful creator deity from the higher benevolent deity, and he produced an influential edited version of Luke along with a canon centered on Luke and the Pauline epistles, helping spur debates over Christian scriptural authority.

  • Paulicianism — Paulicianism was a dualist Christian heresy that began in Armenia and later influenced groups such as the Bogomils. It was associated with iconoclasm, rejection of the Old Testament, and leaders like Constantine of Mananalis and Sergius.

Scholastic theology

• Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033–1109) — archbishop and theologian; formulated the ontological argument for God’s existence in the Proslogion: God is “that than which nothing greater can be conceived,” and a being that exists in reality is greater than one existing only in the mind, therefore God must exist; also known for the satisfaction theory of atonement.
  • Cur Deus Homo — Cur Deus Homo, or Why God Became Man, is Anselm’s famous 1098 treatise on the incarnation and atonement. In it, Anselm argues that Christ’s crucifixion satisfies a debt to God that only a being both divine and human could pay.
• Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) — Dominican friar and the preeminent Scholastic theologian; his Summa Theologica (Summa Theologiae) synthesizes Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy; proposed the Five Ways (cosmological arguments for God’s existence); his system, Thomism, became the official philosophy of the Roman Catholic Church; called the “Angelic Doctor.”
  • Summa contra Gentiles — Summa contra Gentiles is Thomas Aquinas’s missionary theological work aimed at defending Christianity against non-Christians. It argues from reason where possible and from faith where reason cannot reach. The work is organized into four books on God, creation, humanity’s end, and doctrinal errors. Raymond of Peñafort commissioned it, and its discussions of Aristotelian philosophy and the prime mover are central clues.

• Duns Scotus (c. 1266–1308) — Franciscan philosopher and theologian; championed the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception and the concept of haecceitas (“thisness,” the principle of individuation); his followers were called “Dunces” by Renaissance humanists (the origin of the word “dunce,” used mockingly). He was also called Doctor Subtilis. His thought is associated with the univocity of being and the formal distinction, and he was a major critic of Henry of Ghent.

• Peter Lombard

  • Four Books of Sentences — Peter Lombard’s medieval theological textbook, arranged in distinctions and widely commented on in the scholastic tradition. It became a standard non-biblical source for theology and a central text for debates about the sacraments, creation, and the Trinity, and it was a major work studied by thinkers such as Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Alexander of Hales.

  • Sentences
    • Book of Sentences — Peter Lombard’s Book of Sentences is the medieval theological textbook that became a standard scholastic commentary. Later theologians, including Peter Abelard’s circle and Ockham, wrote influential commentaries on it.
  • The Sentences — The Sentences, or Magister Sententiarum, is Peter Lombard’s medieval theological textbook. Organized into four books of questions, it became a standard work of scholastic education and drew major commentary from figures such as St. Bonaventure.

The Reformation and its aftermath

• Ulrich Zwingli (1484–1531) — Swiss Reformer in Zürich; more radical than Luther on the Eucharist (held a purely symbolic/memorial view); disagreed with Luther at the Marburg Colloquy (1529); killed at the Battle of Kappel during a conflict between Protestant and Catholic cantons. He led the Zurich Reformation, issued the 67 theses in 1519, and served as a priest at the Grossmünster in Zurich. He also supported removing religious images, simplifying the Mass, opposing fasting rules, and challenging infant baptism.

• John Knox (c. 1514–1572) — Scottish Reformer; studied with Calvin in Geneva; returned to Scotland to establish Presbyterianism; wrote the First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women (1558), attacking female rulers. He also appears in clues about Geneva, the Book of Discipline, and the black rubric in the Book of Common Prayer.

• Council of Trent (1545–1563) — the Catholic Church’s primary response to the Protestant Reformation; reaffirmed the authority of tradition alongside Scripture, the seven sacraments, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, and the Latin Vulgate; initiated major internal reforms.

• John Wesley (1703–1791) — Anglican priest and co-founder (with his brother Charles) of Methodism; emphasized personal holiness, salvation open to all, and “prevenient grace”; his open-air preaching sparked religious revivals in England and the American colonies; the Methodist Church became one of the largest Protestant denominations. He is associated with the Aldersgate Street conversion experience and with disputes over predestination and the sacraments in America. His theology appealed to scripture, tradition, reason, and experience, and he helped spread revivalism and antislavery ideas in colonial America.

• Calvinism (Reformed tradition) — the theological system derived from John Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536/1559); key doctrines summarized by the mnemonic TULIP: Total depravity, Unconditional election, Limited atonement, Irresistible grace, Perseverance of the saints.

• Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1466–1536) — Dutch humanist scholar and Catholic priest; edited the Greek New Testament (Novum Instrumentum, 1516); satirized Church corruption in The Praise of Folly; advocated internal reform but broke with Luther over free will (On Free Will, 1524); embodied the paradox of a reformer who stayed Catholic.

• John Wycliffe (c. 1328–1384) — English theologian at Oxford; pre-Reformation reformer; challenged papal authority and transubstantiation; translated (or oversaw the first translation of) the Bible into Middle English; his followers were called Lollards; condemned posthumously by the Council of Constance; influenced Jan Hus. He argued for disendowing the church and held that scripture was the supreme authority; he was supported by John of Gaunt and declared a heretic in 1380. He also denied monasticism and emphasized royal authority, and his bones were later burned.
  • Wyclif’s Bible — Wyclif’s Bible was the first complete Bible in English, produced from the Latin Vulgate in the late fourteenth century. It is associated with John Wycliffe, Nicholas of Hereford, and John Purvey, though Wycliffe himself did not complete the translations.

• Jan Hus (c. 1369–1415) — Czech priest and theologian; influenced by Wycliffe; called for church reform, rejected indulgences, and advocated for Scripture’s authority over papal decrees; tried for heresy at the Council of Constance and burned at the stake; a national hero in Bohemia and a precursor to the Protestant Reformation.

• Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556) — first Protestant Archbishop of Canterbury; principal author of the Book of Common Prayer (1549, revised 1552), the liturgical foundation of the Church of England and Anglican tradition; helped establish the theological direction of the English Reformation; burned at the stake under the Catholic Queen Mary I. He served under Henry VIII and is also associated with the Forty-two Articles and his execution during the Marian persecutions.

• George Fox (1624–1691) — English itinerant preacher; founder of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers); rejected formal clergy, sacraments, and outward rituals in favor of the direct inner experience of the “Inner Light” of Christ; early Quakers faced significant persecution; his Journal is a foundational text. He is associated with visions such as the one at Pendle Hill, rejected violence, and wrote influential letters and declarations during periods of repeated imprisonment.

• Martin Luther

  • On the Jews and Their Lies — On the Jews and Their Lies is Martin Luther’s notorious 1543 antisemitic treatise. It urges the destruction of Jewish property and other violent measures, and is often cited in discussions of Luther’s anti-Jewish polemics.

  • A Mighty Fortress Is Our God — Martin Luther’s Reformation hymn, in German “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott,” known in English as “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God.” It paraphrases Psalm 46 and became a major Protestant chorale; it was also taken up by Bach, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Debussy, and others. Its English refrain is often associated with images of a bulwark, shield, and sword.

• Christian reform movements
  • Lollards — The Lollards were a late medieval English reform movement associated with John Wycliffe and his followers. They attacked transubstantiation, papal supremacy or authority, and clerical wealth and corruption. Their beliefs were summarized in the Twelve Conclusions. The movement was persecuted in England, and Sir John Oldcastle’s rebellion and the martyrdom of William Sawtrey are among the figures and events linked to it.
• English Puritanism
  • Fifth Monarchists — A millenarian Puritan sect that expected Christ’s earthly reign to follow the four great world empires, drawing its name from Daniel’s sequence of empires. It was an extreme Puritan movement linked to the upheavals of the English Civil War and its aftermath, and its adherents believed the saints would soon rule with Christ in a final kingdom. They also rose in rebellion against Charles II.
• John Calvin
  • Institutes of the Christian Religion — John Calvin’s major theological treatise and a foundational text of the Reformed tradition. It is organized into four books on God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, and the Church, and lays out his views on predestination, justification, sacraments, paedobaptism, Christian doctrine, and Protestant teaching. Its dedication or prefatory appeal to Francis I of France explains Calvin’s departure from France and pleads for persecuted evangelicals.
• Henry VIII
  • Assertio septem sacramentorum — Assertio septem sacramentorum was Henry VIII’s Latin defense of the seven sacraments, the treatise that helped earn him the title Fidei Defensor from Pope Leo X.
• Christian humanism
  • Enchiridion Militis Christiani or Handbook of a Christian Soldier or Manual of a Christian Soldier — Enchiridion Militis Christiani is Erasmus’s 1503 handbook on inner piety, direct scripture, and reforming Christian life apart from ritual formalism. The work was influential in early Protestant thought and was translated into English by William Tyndale.

Modern theology

• Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) — German theologian; called the “father of modern liberal theology”; his On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers (1799) defined religion as a “feeling of absolute dependence” on the infinite; his hermeneutics influenced biblical interpretation for generations. He was also a philosopher and a key figure in German Romanticism, often called the father of hermeneutics. He distinguished grammatical from psychological interpretation, and his other major work includes The Christian Faith.

• Karl Barth (1886–1968) — Swiss Reformed theologian; the dominant Protestant theologian of the 20th century; his Church Dogmatics (13 volumes, unfinished) reasserts the priority of divine revelation against liberal theology; his “Nein!” to natural theology and his role in the Barmen Declaration (1934, opposing Nazi ideology) were defining moments.
  • Church Dogmatics — Church Dogmatics is Karl Barth’s massive theological magnum opus, issued in multiple volumes over decades. It is a central work of 20th-century Protestant theology and is closely tied to Barth’s role in the Confessing Church.
• Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–1945) — German Lutheran pastor and theologian; key figure in the Confessing Church opposing Nazism; his Letters and Papers from Prison and The Cost of Discipleship (“cheap grace” vs. “costly grace”) are widely read; executed at Flossenbürg concentration camp weeks before the war’s end. He was also associated with the July 20 plot against Hitler.
  • The Cost of Discipleship — The Cost of Discipleship is Dietrich Bonhoeffer’s influential work of Christian theology from 1937. It attacks “cheap grace” and argues that true discipleship requires costly obedience, especially in the Sermon on the Mount.

• Paul Tillich (1886–1965) — German-American theologian; synthesized theology with existentialist philosophy; defined God as “the Ground of Being” rather than a being among beings; his Systematic Theology and The Courage to Be are major works.

• Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971) — American theologian and public intellectual; developed “Christian realism,” arguing against idealism in ethics and politics; his The Nature and Destiny of Man and Moral Man and Immoral Society influenced Cold War foreign policy thinkers.

• Vatican II (1962–1965) — the Second Vatican Council, convened by Pope John XXIII; the most significant Catholic reform council since Trent; opened dialogue with other Christians (ecumenism) and other religions (Nostra Aetate); permitted the Mass in vernacular languages; emphasized the Church as “the people of God.” It was opened by Pope John XXIII in 1962 and completed under Pope Paul VI in 1965. Major documents associated with it include Lumen Gentium, Dei Verbum, Gaudium et Spes, Dignitatis Humanae, and the liturgical constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium.

• Vatican I (1869–1870) — the First Vatican Council; defined the doctrine of papal infallibility: the Pope speaks infallibly ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals; interrupted by the Franco-Prussian War; the Old Catholic Church split from Rome over this definition. Convened by Pope Pius IX in Rome in 1869–1870, it issued the dogmatic constitution Dei Filius and Pastor Aeternus.

• Catholic social teaching
  • the poor — In liberation theology and Catholic social teaching, the poor are the people for whom a preferential option is made. Pope Francis established a World Day of the Poor, and writers such as Jon Sobrino and Gustavo Gutiérrez associate salvation and justice with this group.
• Catholic traditionalism
  • Sedevacantism — Sedevacantism is the Catholic traditionalist belief that the papal see has been vacant since the death of Pius XII or, more broadly, since Vatican II. It is associated with rejection of post-conciliar reforms and with related fringe positions such as conclavism and sedeprivationism.
• Christian ecumenism
  • The Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches — The Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches issued a joint declaration in Augsburg on October 31, 1999, addressing the doctrine of justification. The date was chosen to mark the anniversary of the Reformation’s symbolic break with the posting of the Ninety-Five Theses.
• liberation theology — This Latin American Catholic movement combines social justice with Marxist analysis and is associated with Gustavo Gutiérrez and the Medellín Conference. It emphasizes a “preferential option for the poor” and was criticized by the Vatican and Cardinal Ratzinger for its political theology.

  • Gustavo Gutiérrez — Gustavo Gutiérrez was the Peruvian Dominican priest who helped found liberation theology with his book A Theology of Liberation. He is closely associated with the preferential option for the poor and Latin American Catholic social activism.

  • Gustavo Gutiérrez Merino — Gustavo Gutiérrez Merino was the Peruvian Catholic priest who wrote A Theology of Liberation and helped found liberation theology. His thought emphasized the preferential option for the poor and shaped Latin American Catholic social thought.

• Christian theologians

  • St. Anselm of Canterbury — St. Anselm of Canterbury was a medieval theologian and Archbishop of Canterbury best known for the ontological argument in the Proslogion. He also wrote Cur Deus Homo, where he argued that Christ’s death provides satisfaction rather than a ransom for sin.

  • Stanley Hauerwas — Stanley Hauerwas is an American Protestant theologian and ethicist associated with Duke Divinity School. His work, including Resident Aliens and The Politics of Jesus, argues for a distinctively Christian moral vision resistant to easy assimilation by secular society.

• Christian theology
  • Anthropology
    • flesh — In Christian theology, flesh is the bodily substance contrasted with spirit and linked to incarnation and transubstantiation. It also appears in biblical warnings about the weakness of human desire and in philosophical discussions of embodiment.

  • antinomianism — Antinomianism is the belief that the moral law does not bind the saved, an extreme form of sola fide tied to debates over free grace. It was associated with Anne Hutchinson, Roger Williams, and the Antinomian Controversy in colonial New England.

  • Christology — Christology is the branch of theology concerned with the nature and divinity of Jesus Christ. It is closely tied to debates over terms such as substance, person, nature, and the Trinity, including the Monophysite and Nestorian controversies.

    • Docetism — Docetism is the early Christian view that Jesus only seemed to have a physical body and did not truly suffer or die on the cross. It appears in anti-Gnostic debates and is opposed by writers such as Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus.

    • Eutyches — Eutyches was a fifth-century Christian theologian whose teachings about Christ’s nature helped provoke the Monophysite controversy. He was condemned, briefly restored at the Robber Synod, and then rejected again at the Council of Chalcedon.

    • Miaphysitism — Miaphysitism is the Christological doctrine embraced by the Armenian and Oriental Orthodox churches, teaching that Christ’s divine and human natures are united without mixture or separation. It is associated with Cyril of Alexandria and was developed in opposition to Nestorian and Eutychian positions.

    • Monotheletism — Monotheletism is a 7th-century Christological doctrine holding that Christ had two natures but only one divine will. It was promoted as an imperial compromise under Emperor Heraclius, associated with Pope Honorius I, and later condemned as heretical by the Third Council of Constantinople in 680, also known as the Sixth Ecumenical Council.

    • Nestorius — Nestorius was the fifth-century Archbishop of Constantinople whose Christological teaching was condemned at the Council of Ephesus. He rejected the title Theotokos for Mary, and his name became attached to the Church of the East and to the idea of a sharp distinction between Christ’s divine and human natures.

  • Death of God theology — Death of God theology is a 1960s movement associated with Thomas J. J. Altizer, William Hamilton, Paul van Buren, and Gabriel Vahanian. It sought to preserve Christian ethics while treating modern culture as a post-Christian world in which transcendent belief had collapsed.

  • Dionysius the Areopagite — Dionysius the Areopagite is the name traditionally given to an early Christian convert, but the major surviving theological works under that name are now attributed to Pseudo-Dionysius. Those writings are known for Neoplatonic negative theology, especially in On the Divine Names.

  • Faith and works
    • works — Works in Christian theology refers to deeds or actions, especially in debates over whether salvation comes by faith alone or by faith together with deeds. It is a standard clue in discussions of James, Romans, Hebrews, and the contrast between faith and dead religion.
      • The Confessions of Saint Augustine — Augustine of Hippo’s spiritual autobiography and autobiographical account of his sinful youth, conversion, and intellectual and spiritual development. It is famous for the pear theft episode, the prayer for chastity “but not yet,” the conversion scene with “tolle lege,” and his encounters with St. Ambrose and Monica; it also reflects on memory, grace, faith, and time. It is a foundational text of Latin Christian literature.

  • grace — Grace is the theological idea of unmerited divine favor, central to salvation in Christianity and especially in phrases like “Amazing Grace” and “irresistible grace.” Quizbowl clues often connect it to Paul, Calvinism, Arminianism, and the hymn by John Newton.

  • metanoia — Metanoia is a Greek term for repentance or conversion, referring to a profound change of heart. Christian discussions of the term often connect it to baptismal language in Acts and to theological reflections such as those in Benedict’s Jesus of Nazareth.

  • Salvation and Church Order
    • complementarianism — This evangelical theological position holds that men and women have equal value but different roles in the church and family. It is promoted by the Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood and defended by writers such as John Piper.
  • Virtues
    • righteousness — Righteousness is the ethical and religious ideal named in the Armor of God passage in Ephesians and in Paul’s language about being freed from sin. The same word can also appear as the answer to a moral contrast in literature prompts.
• Pope Pius IX — Pius IX was the long-reigning pope who became the “prisoner of the Vatican” after the loss of the Papal States and Italian unification. He defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, convened the First Vatican Council, and issued the Syllabus of Errors and Quanta Cura against modern liberalism.
  • Syllabus of Errors — The Syllabus of Errors was Pope Pius IX’s 1864 condemnation of eighty liberal and secular propositions issued alongside Quanta Cura. It attacks doctrines of democracy, individual liberty, and other modern humanist ideas.
• creationism — Creationism is the belief that the universe and life were divinely created rather than produced by evolution. Quizbowl clues often contrast its old-earth and young-earth forms and cite figures such as Henry Morris, John Whitcomb, Ken Ham, and Kent Hovind. It is frequently discussed alongside Genesis literalism, the Gish Gallop, and intelligent design.

  • Young Earth creationism — Young Earth creationism is the belief that the Earth and life were created only a few thousand years ago. It is commonly associated with a literal reading of Genesis and figures such as Ken Ham, Kent Hovind, and Duane Gish.

  • Of Pandas and People — Of Pandas and People is an intelligent-design textbook associated with the Kitzmiller v. Dover case. It includes discussion of irreducible complexity, including Michael Behe’s treatment of blood clotting.

• Christian eschatology

  • Amillennialism — Amillennialism is the Christian eschatological view that the thousand-year reign in Revelation is symbolic rather than literal. It teaches that Christ’s reign is already present and will culminate at the Second Coming.

  • Armageddon — Armageddon is used for the end-times battle associated with the Greek form Har-Megiddo and, more generally, the apocalypse. It also titles the 1998 film about astronauts trying to destroy an approaching meteor before it hits Earth.

  • Harold Camping — Harold Camping was a Christian radio host and Family Radio president who predicted the world would end on May 21, 2011. He also forecast a Rapture date based on his own Bible calculations.

  • Last Judgement — The Last Judgement is the Christian scene of Christ separating the saved from the damned at the end of the world. It appears in medieval sculpture, wall painting, and panel art, including works by Jan van Eyck, Hans Memling, and Gislebertus.

  • Millennium — In Christian eschatology, the millennium is the thousand-year reign of Christ described in Revelation 20. It follows Satan’s binding and precedes the Last Judgment, and is also the period during which Christ reigns on Earth before the New Jerusalem. The term has also given rise to millenarian beliefs about an imminent transformation of society, and appears as a title in modern popular music.

  • preterism — Preterism is the Christian eschatological view that some or all biblical prophecies were fulfilled in the first century. It is often associated with interpretations of the destruction of the Second Temple and with the work of Luis de Alcazar.

  • the Great Tribulation — The Great Tribulation is the apocalyptic period of intense persecution described in Christian eschatology. It is often linked to the Olivet Discourse and, in dispensational thought, may follow the Rapture and last about seven years.

• Christian ethics
  • Books
    • Who Switched the Price Tags? — Tony Campolo’s book “Who Switched the Price Tags?” is a Christian call to risk more, reflect more, and do more things of lasting value. Its title frames an ethical challenge rather than a literal mystery, and it is tied to Campolo’s film-based ministry material.
  • Seven Deadly Sins — The classic Christian list of vices, usually given as pride, greed, lust, envy, gluttony, wrath, and sloth. They are also called the capital sins, and are often paired with corresponding virtues or with apocalyptic imagery. They were a common organizing principle in medieval and Renaissance morality plays, devotional literature, and Dante’s Purgatory.

    • greed — Greed is one of the seven deadly sins and is associated with the demon Mammon. It is also the title of Erich von Stroheim’s famously overlong film adaptation of McTeague.

    • lust — Lust is one of the seven deadly sins and is the sin that Dante places in the second circle of Hell. It is associated with uncontrolled desire, Paolo and Francesca, and literary treatments ranging from Aretino to Eileen Chang.

    • Pride — Pride is one of the seven deadly sins and can also mean a group of lions, which is why it appears in titles such as Pride and Prejudice and in names like Pride Rock. In visual allegory, it is commonly represented by vanity or self-admiration.

Major branches

• Roman Catholicism — led by the Pope in Rome; the largest Christian denomination; emphasizes apostolic succession, the authority of tradition alongside Scripture, and the seven sacraments. The Roman Catholic Church is the Christian institution centered on the papacy and Vatican City. It appears in clues about the Great Schism, the Spanish Inquisition, the Investiture Controversy, and the Kulturkampf in Bismarck’s Germany, as well as modern abuse scandals and Catholic orders. It is also associated with Walker Percy’s conversion, Santo Daime’s blending of Catholic practice with indigenous traditions, José Rizal, Vatican II’s Zaire Use, Irish Catholic emancipation, distributism and G. K. Chesterton, Goan and Mangalorean Catholics in India, nativist prejudice in the United States, Al Smith, John F. Kennedy, liberation theology in Latin America, Oscar Romero, Gustavo Gutiérrez, conflicts over Church influence in Mexico and other countries, anti-communism, the Cristero War, John Paul II, Pope Francis, saints, monophony, and the Council of Trent.

  • altar — An altar is the sacred structure in a Roman Catholic church where the Eucharist is celebrated and the bread and wine are consecrated. It is usually located in the sanctuary and may be embellished with architectural or artistic additions.

  • antipopes — Antipopes are claimants to the papal throne who are not recognized as legitimate popes by the Roman Catholic Church. Historical examples include Clement VII of the Western Schism and Felix V.

    • Antipope Clement III — Antipope Clement III was installed by Henry IV during the lay investiture controversy and opposed Gregory VII as a papal claimant.

    • antipope(s) — An antipope is a rival claimant to the papacy who is not recognized as the legitimate bishop of Rome. Historical examples include Hippolytus, Felix V, and Novatian, and the title also appears in later fringe claims such as those of Michael in rural Kansas.

  • Archbishops
    • John O’Connor — John O’Connor was the Catholic archbishop of New York, succeeding Cardinal Terence Cooke, and later a cardinal. A former rear admiral, he became a prominent American Catholic commentator known for conservative interventions in church debate, especially his public opposition to abortion, homosexuality, and women priests, and his comments on Catholic politicians. His resignation at retirement age was declined, and he died in 2000.

  • Bernard Law — Bernard Law was the cardinal and archbishop of Boston who became notorious for his role in the Catholic Church sex abuse scandal. Clues usually focus on his failure to act after learning of abuse and on his handling of suspected priests in the archdiocese.

  • Bernard of Clairvaux — Bernard of Clairvaux was a Cistercian abbot and reformer of Clairvaux who became a major medieval church authority and doctor of the Church, later honored as Doctor Mellifluus. His preaching helped launch and promote the Second Crusade, and he was associated with support for the Knights Templar, admonitions to rulers, sermons on the Song of Songs, and opposition to Peter Abelard. Dante places him as a guide in Paradise, and he is linked to the saying that the road to hell is paved with good intentions.

  • Bishops
    • Aloysius Stepinac — Aloysius Stepinac was the Croatian archbishop tried under Tito’s regime for his links to the Ustase government. He was imprisoned, later released under pressure, and eventually beatified by Pope John Paul II.
  • canonization — Canonization is the Catholic process by which a deceased person is formally recognized as a saint. The procedure usually follows beatification and traditionally requires evidence of miracles, with martyrs treated differently from confessors.
    • beatification — Beatification is the Catholic recognition that someone is “blessed” and may be publicly venerated locally. It is a step on the path to sainthood and, in the standard process, follows the confirmation of a miracle or martyrdom.

  • Cardinal — A cardinal is a senior Catholic cleric who may serve as a powerful churchman and adviser to rulers. In Renaissance drama, the title often appears in roles such as Monticelso in The White Devil and in figures associated with poison, intrigue, and ecclesiastical power.

  • Cardinal Jozsef Mindszenty — József Mindszenty was the Hungarian Catholic primate whose show trial under communism made him a symbol of anti-Soviet resistance. After refuge in the U.S. embassy in Budapest, he lived under asylum there for years before later moving to Vienna.

  • cardinals — Cardinals are the senior Catholic bishops who wear red vestments and form the college that elects a new pope in conclave. They are appointed by the pope and are linked to the Holy See and, in some contexts, to analogous high religious offices in other traditions.

    • Francis Cardinal Arinze — Francis Cardinal Arinze is a Nigerian Catholic prelate from the Igbo people who became a cardinal and major Vatican figure. The clues emphasize his conversion from traditional Igbo religion as a child and his opposition to political upheaval during Nigeria’s civil war.

    • The Cardinal — The Cardinal is a title used for a play by Shirley and for Cardinal Richelieu in The Three Musketeers. It refers to the Catholic rank and is associated with powerful ecclesiastical and political figures in literature.

  • Carlo Maria Martini — Carlo Maria Martini was the Archbishop of Milan and a prominent Catholic biblical scholar. He was known for speaking many languages and writing extensively on scripture.

  • Catholic saints
    • Mother Teresa — Mother Teresa was an Albanian-born Catholic nun and missionary who founded the Missionaries of Charity in Calcutta, where she became famous for caring for the poor and dying. She won the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize and later became the subject of debate over her canonization and public image; Christopher Hitchens was among her critics.
  • Catholic social action
    • workers — Workers name the Catholic Worker movement founded by Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin, with its houses of hospitality and distributist roots. The same clue set points to Young Christian Workers and worker-priests, movements tied to Catholic social action and Joseph Cardijn’s See, Judge, Act slogan.
      • Dorothy Day — Dorothy Day was a journalist, Catholic convert, and cofounder of the Catholic Worker movement with Peter Maurin. She wrote The Eleventh Virgin and The Long Loneliness, and later founded Catholic Worker hospitality houses and the newspaper of the same name.

  • Catholics — Catholics were the target of anti-Catholic nativism in the United States and of legal discrimination in Britain’s penal era. Clues often point to Popery, the Gordon Riots, the Test Acts, or political attacks on Catholic officeholding and immigration.

  • clergy
    • Catholic priest — A Catholic priest is a cleric who may perform exorcisms and is a common literary role, appearing as detectives, confessors, missionaries, and tragic antiheroes. Examples include Father Brown in detective fiction and the whiskey priest in Graham Greene’s novels. Priests also recur in works such as The Power and the Glory, Silence, FAITH: The Unholy Trinity, Noli Me Tangere, and The Red and the Black.

  • College of Cardinals — The body of Catholic cardinals that elects the pope. It meets in conclave to choose a new pope, and its internal hierarchy is central to papal succession. Ballots are burned after voting, with black smoke signaling no decision and white smoke announcing a successful election.

  • Conversion to Roman Catholicism
    • converting to Roman Catholicism — This action is the decision to become Roman Catholic, as implied by conversions described in Brideshead Revisited and by famous historical cases such as Henry IV and Queen Christina. It is often signaled in literature and history by a turn from another Christian tradition to Catholicism.
  • Devotions

    • praying a rosary — Praying a rosary is the Catholic devotional practice of reciting prayers while counting them on a string of beads. It is organized into decades and centers on meditation upon the Joyful, Sorrowful, Glorious, and Luminous mysteries.

    • the Rosary — The rosary is a Catholic devotional prayer said with beads and organized into decades of Hail Marys. It is associated with the mysteries of Christ and Mary, and tradition links its spread to St. Dominic.

    • the sacred heart of Jesus — The Sacred Heart of Jesus is a Catholic devotional image of Christ’s heart, usually shown flaming, crowned with thorns, and surmounted by a cross. It is linked to visions promoted by Margaret Mary Alacoque and later devotion in the Divine Mercy tradition.

  • Doctors of the Church
    • Doctor of the Church — A Doctor of the Church is a saint recognized by the Catholic Church for major contributions to theology or doctrine. Bede, Thomas Aquinas, Augustine, Gregory of Narek, and Hildegard of Bingen are associated with this title.
  • Doctrine
    • Catechism of the Catholic Church — The Catechism of the Catholic Church is the official compendium of Catholic doctrine issued under John Paul II in 1992. It is organized around the creed, the sacraments, moral life, and prayer.

  • Elizabeth Seton — First American-born saint, canonized in 1975 after converting to Catholicism as an adult. She founded the Sisters of Charity in 1809 and helped establish the Catholic school system in the United States through her work in Baltimore and Emmitsburg. She was widowed after marrying into a merchant family, and her life is often associated with motherhood, widowhood, religious leadership, and Catholic education.

  • encyclicals
    • Humanae Vitae — Humanae Vitae is Pope Paul VI’s 1968 encyclical reaffirming the Catholic Church’s opposition to most forms of contraception and abortion. It became controversial because it rejected liberalized birth control even while permitting the rhythm method.
  • Eucharistic feasts
    • Feast of Corpus Christi — The Feast of Corpus Christi is a Catholic observance of the Eucharist, held on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. It was promoted in the thirteenth century by Juliana of Liège, and processions of the Blessed Sacrament are central to its celebration.
  • Feasts
    • Day of the Dead — Mexican holiday honoring the dead, observed on November 1 and 2 or around All Saints’ Day and All Souls’ Day in early November. It centers on family ofrendas, cemetery visits, food offerings, marigolds, calaveras, sugar skulls, and remembrance of the deceased, and is associated with angelitos, literary calaveras, and pan de muerto. It blends Catholic observances with older Aztec traditions and is observed regionally in places such as Yucatán and the Philippines.

  • Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros — Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros was a Spanish cardinal and reformer who served as Grand Inquisitor and promoted Catholic renewal under Ferdinand and Isabella. He founded the University of Alcalá and sponsored the Complutensian Polyglot, while also backing the revival of the Mozarabic Rite.

  • French church politics
    • Gallicanism — Gallicanism was the French doctrine that resisted papal centralization by limiting the pope’s role to spiritual authority rather than temporal power. It is associated with anti-ultramontanist French church politics and the Declaration of the Clergy of France.

  • Holy See — The Holy See is the central governing and diplomatic entity of the Catholic Church, led by the Pope through the Roman Curia. It is the sovereign entity associated with Vatican City and was formally recognized as territorially sovereign by the Lateran Treaty.

  • Holy See diplomacy
    • nuncio — A nuncio is a Vatican diplomat accredited as an ambassador. The title usually refers to the Holy See’s representative to a foreign government.
  • Ignatian spirituality
    • examen — The examen is a twice-daily prayer of self-review popularized by the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola. It is structured as a reflective sequence that moves from gratitude toward repentance and amendment of life.
  • Inquisition — The Inquisition was the Catholic Church’s system of ecclesiastical tribunals for prosecuting and investigating heresy, begun in medieval Europe and later continued in some regions of Latin America. It is especially associated with branches in Spain, Portugal, Rome, and Goa, with Torquemada, auto-da-fé proceedings, coercive methods, and punishments including fines, imprisonment, death, and excommunication. It targeted Jews, Muslims, Marranos, Moriscos, conversos, accused witches, and other suspected heretics.

    • the Spanish Inquisition — The Spanish Inquisition was the royal and ecclesiastical tribunal established in Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella to police orthodoxy. Monty Python’s “Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition” sketches turned it into a comic image of absurdly inept torturers.

    • Inquisitor — An inquisitor is a person who conducts an inquisition, especially in settings such as the Church, the Force-sensitive Imperial order, or Hogwarts’s educational regime. The title also evokes the Grand Inquisitor in Dostoyevsky and the Hogwarts High Inquisitor in Harry Potter.

  • Institutions
    • Vatican bank — The Vatican Bank is the Institute for the Works of Religion, the financial institution associated with the Holy See. It became notorious through scandals involving Roberto Calvi, Paul Marcinkus, and the Blackfriars Bridge death, as well as lawsuits over wartime assets.

  • Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet — Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet was a French bishop, court preacher for Louis XIV, and noted orator who tutored the son of Louis XIV. He was a major defender of absolutism, the divine right of kings, and absolute monarchy, opposed the Quietists, and disputed with Fénelon over Quietism. He wrote Discourse on Universal History and Treatise of the Knowledge of God and One’s Self, and is remembered for his rhetorical sermons.

  • Jansenism — A Catholic movement associated with Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Ypres, and with Port-Royal. It stressed Augustine, original sin, predestination, the corruption of human nature, and severe ideas about grace, confession, and moral rigor. It was closely linked to the writings of Augustinus and Pascal’s Provincial Letters, often defined by an anti-Jesuit stance, and was defended by figures such as Blaise Pascal and Antoine Arnauld. It was condemned by papal authority in bulls such as Cum occasione and Unigenitus.

    • Cornelius Jansen — Cornelius Jansen was a Flemish bishop and theologian whose Augustinus argued for Augustinian original sin and against Jesuit teaching. His theology emphasized irresistible grace and inspired Jansenism and the Port-Royal circle; his doctrines were condemned by several popes, including in Cum occasione, and later defended by Blaise Pascal in the Provinciales / Provincial Letters.

    • Port-Royal-des-Champs — Port-Royal-des-Champs was a French Jansenist convent and abbey associated with Blaise Pascal, Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole, and the Petites Écoles. It became famous for the Port-Royal Logic, which was influential in philosophy of language and logic and is cited in connection with Chomsky’s discussion of grammar, and for its role in the intellectual world of seventeenth-century French Catholicism.

  • Jean-Marie Lustiger — Jean-Marie Lustiger was the Archbishop of Paris and a close papal confidant. Born to Jewish parents in Poland, he converted to Catholicism as a teenager.

  • Knights of Columbus — A Roman Catholic fraternal service organization founded in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1882 by Michael J. McGivney. Named for Christopher Columbus, it was modeled in part as a response to the influence of other fraternal orders and is known for charity, family welfare, and charitable service. Its youth wing is called the Squires.

  • Leo XIII — Leo XIII was the pope who reigned from 1878 to 1903 and issued Rerum novarum, the encyclical on labor and capital. He also promoted Thomism in Aeterni Patris, opened the Vatican Secret Archives to researchers, and was known as the Rosary Pope.
    • Rerum Novarum — Rerum Novarum is Leo XIII’s 1891 encyclical on labor, capital, unions, and the duties of the state. It rejects both socialism and unfettered capitalism and is a foundational text for modern Catholic social teaching.
  • Liturgical year
    • Easter vigil — The Easter vigil is the Catholic night Mass celebrated on Holy Saturday before Easter Sunday. It features the lighting of the Paschal candle, readings from salvation history, baptisms and confirmations, and the first joyful “Alleluia” after Lent.
  • Liturgy
    • solemnity — In Roman Catholic liturgy, a solemnity is the highest rank of feast, above ordinary feasts and memorials. Examples include Epiphany, Pentecost, All Saints’ Day, and Corpus Christi.
  • Marian apparitions — Reported supernatural appearances of the Virgin Mary, often examined in Catholic tradition through formal criteria. Famous examples include Lourdes, Fátima, Knock, Zeitoun, and the apparition to Juan Diego at Tepeyac Hill (Guadalupe), with some reports associated with miracles, healing springs, pilgrimages, and devotional practices such as the Blue Army and the Miraculous Medal.

    • Fátima — Fátima is the Portuguese town associated with Marian apparitions reported by three children in 1917. The site became famous as the place where the Virgin Mary was said to have appeared as Our Lady of Fátima, inspiring devotion to the Rosary.

    • Medjugorje — Medjugorje is a Bosnian town associated with reported Marian apparitions beginning in 1981. According to the claim, six local children saw Mary there and continued to report visions afterward.

    • Our Lady of Fatima — Our Lady of Fatima is the Marian title associated with the reported 1917 apparitions in Portugal to three children. The event is famous for the three secrets and for later Catholic devotion.

    • Our Lady of Guadalupe — The Marian apparition said to have appeared to Juan Diego in 1531 in Mexico, associated with Tepeyac Hill near Mexico City and the tilma of Juan Diego. Her feast day is December 12, drawing major pilgrimages to the basilica in Mexico City. She is a major religious and political symbol of Mexico, often linked to the blending of Catholic and indigenous traditions and to the displaced shrine of Tonantzin; her image is also associated with the cloak of roses and she is revered across Mexico and Latin America as a patron figure of Mexico.

    • The visions of this miller’s daughter in 1858 led to the founding of the shrine of Lourdes — The visions of Bernadette Soubirous, a miller’s daughter, in 1858 led to the shrine of Lourdes. The apparition became one of the most famous Marian pilgrimage sites in France.

  • Marian doctrines
    • The Assumption of Mary — The Assumption of Mary is the Catholic doctrine that Mary was taken into heaven body and soul. It is celebrated on August 15 and was formally defined by Pius XII in Munificentissimus Deus.
  • Marian dogma
    • Ineffabilis Deus — Ineffabilis Deus is the papal bull by which Pius IX defined the Catholic dogma of the Immaculate Conception in 1854. Questions about it usually center on Mary’s preservation from original sin and the December 8 feast day.
  • monastic orders
    • Carthusian Order — A strict contemplative monastic order founded by Saint Bruno of Cologne in 1084 at La Grande Chartreuse. Its houses are charterhouses arranged around cloisters and individual cells, reflecting an exceptionally austere life of silence and solitude. Carthusian monks are known for the weekly spatiamentum and for Chartreuse liqueur.

  • Opus Dei — Opus Dei is a Catholic organization founded by Josemaría Escrivá that emphasizes sanctifying ordinary work. It is a personal prelature of the Catholic Church, associated with strict spiritual discipline and ascetic practices such as mortification of the flesh, and its membership includes lay supernumeraries and celibate numeraries. It was also influential in Franco-era Spain. The name is Latin for “work of God.”

  • papacy — The papacy is the office of the bishop of Rome, historically associated with the pope and the Holy See. It wielded temporal power over the Papal States and was central to disputes such as the political turmoil around Marozia and Sergius III.

    • antipope — An antipope is a rival claimant to the papacy, especially in the era of the Western Schism. Clues often reference Avignon, Felix V, Clement VII, and other figures who opposed the recognized popes in Rome.

    • papal conclave — The locked-in meeting of the College of Cardinals in the Sistine Chapel that elects a new pope, or Bishop of Rome. It begins with extra omnes, involves repeated ballots, and ends when white smoke signals success and Habemus Papam is announced; the sede vacante ends when the new pontiff is chosen.

    • Papal offices
      • Camerlengo — The Vatican official who administers the Church during sede vacante, verifies the pope’s death, oversees mourning and burial, destroys the papal seal and Fisherman’s Ring, and helps summon the conclave.
    • Vacant see
      • Sede Vacante — Sede vacante is the period when the papal seat is empty after a pope dies or resigns. The term is associated with the interregnum before a conclave elects a new pope and with sedevacantist groups that reject later pontiffs.

    • Cadaver Synod — The Cadaver Synod was the notorious 897 trial in which Pope Stephen VI put the dead body of Pope Formosus on trial. The body was declared guilty, its ordinations were annulled, and it was eventually thrown into the Tiber.

    • Medieval papacy
      • Innocent III — Innocent III was the powerful medieval pope who convened the Fourth Lateran Council and launched the Fourth Crusade. He also enforced church discipline, backed the Albigensian Crusade, and intervened in the politics of emperors and kings across Europe.
    • Saeculum obscurum
      • Pornocracy — Pornocracy, also called the Rule of the Harlots or saeculum obscurum, names the early tenth-century period when the papacy was heavily influenced by Roman aristocratic families such as the Theophylacts and Tusculans. Quizbowl clues often place it between Sergius III and John XII and mention Marozia, Theodora, and the Cadaver Synod.

  • papal conclaves — Papal conclaves are the meetings of cardinals that elect a new pope, traditionally concluded by white smoke and the announcement Habemus Papam. They occur during sede vacante and are governed by established ceremonial procedures.

  • Papal doctrine
    • Papal Infallibility — Papal infallibility is the Catholic doctrine that the pope cannot err when speaking ex cathedra on faith and morals. It was formally defined at the First Vatican Council in 1870 and later invoked in defining doctrines such as the Assumption of Mary. Critics have pointed to figures like Honorius I, while supporters trace earlier roots in church history.
      • ex cathedra — Ex cathedra is the Latin phrase for a papal declaration made “from the chair,” the condition under which the pope is considered infallible in defining doctrine. Quizbowl clues often connect it to the First Vatican Council and to formal statements on moral and religious matters.
  • papal documents

    • encyclical — An encyclical is a papal letter, usually addressed to bishops or the wider church, and commonly concerned with doctrine or policy. In Catholic usage, its teaching is authoritative but not counted as infallible, and the term comes from the Latin opening words of the letter.

    • The Syllabus of Errors — The Syllabus of Errors was Pius IX’s 1864 condemnation of modern liberal and religious doctrines. It denounced rationalism, free religion, divorce, and the idea that the pope should reconcile the Church with modern civilization.

  • Papal encyclicals
    • Mit brennender Sorge — Mit brennender Sorge is a 1937 papal encyclical issued by Pius XI against Nazi interference in the Catholic Church. Smuggled into German churches for Palm Sunday reading, it denounced racial ideology and criticized Hitler’s regime.
  • Pope John Paul II — The Polish pope born Karol Wojtyła, who served from 1978 to 2005 and succeeded John Paul I. He was the first non-Italian pope since Adrian VI, was archbishop of Kraków before becoming pope, and was made a cardinal in 1967. During the German occupation of Poland he worked in a stone quarry, and before and during his public career he wrote poetry, theology, and works such as Love and Responsibility and The Acting Person. His papacy was marked by the 1981 assassination attempt by Mehmet Ali Ağca, strong support for Solidarity and opposition to communism in Eastern Europe, opposition to Liberation Theology, promotion of World Youth Day, worldwide travel, and efforts to expand the Vatican’s diplomatic relations. He visited Poland in 1979 and is associated with major late twentieth-century Catholic conservatism and life issues.
    • Books
      • Crossing the Threshold of Hope — Crossing the Threshold of Hope is Pope John Paul II’s best-selling book of meditations, published in the 1990s. Questions about it usually point to its global sales, its discussion of faith and social issues, and the large advance reportedly paid for the title.

  • Pope Pius XII — Pope Pius XII was Eugenio Pacelli, the pope during World War II and the early Cold War. He is associated with the encyclical Summi pontificatus, anti-communism, and later controversy over his silence during the Holocaust, alleged Nazi sympathies, and Vatican diplomacy. His papacy also saw the formal definition of the Assumption of Mary.

  • Popes named Callixtus
    • Callixtus — Callixtus is a papal name borne by several popes, including one connected with the Concordat of Worms and another who allegedly excommunicated Halley’s Comet. The name is also tied to a catacomb on the Appian Way and to later controversies over crusading, pilgrimage, and papal authority.

  • Purgatory — Purgatory is the Catholic place of purification for souls who are saved but still need cleansing before Heaven. It is central to Dante’s Purgatorio and to legends of St. Patrick’s Purgatory at Lough Derg.

  • Religious orders

    • Augustinians — The Augustinians are a Catholic religious order rooted in communities of canons that formed in medieval Europe. They were heavily suppressed after 1800, though communities still remain in Europe and the United States.

    • Carmelite order — A Catholic mendicant religious order founded on Mount Carmel and associated with a brown habit, contemplative prayer, Marian devotion, and the reforming Discalced branch. Its tradition includes figures such as Teresa of Ávila, John of the Cross, and Brother Lawrence, and later tradition links it to Elijah and Elisha.

    • Ursulines — The Ursulines are a Catholic religious order founded by Angela Merici and associated with education for girls. Their patron saint is Saint Ursula, and they are linked to the possessed-nun episodes at Loudun and Aix-en-Provence.

  • Roman Curia
    • Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith — The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith is a Vatican office responsible for guarding Catholic doctrine. It succeeded earlier inquisitorial institutions and was led by Joseph Ratzinger before he became Pope Benedict XVI.
  • Rosary — The rosary is a Catholic prayer practice said with a string of beads to count repeated prayers, typically divided into decades of Hail Marys while meditating on the mysteries. It is associated with the joyful, sorrowful, glorious, and luminous mysteries and with traditions linking it to Saint Dominic and Alanus de Rupe.

    • Gloria Patri and Lord’s Prayer — In the Rosary, the decades of Hail Marys are accompanied by a mystery and the Gloria Patri and Lord’s Prayer.

    • Luminous mysteries — The Luminous Mysteries, also called the Mysteries of Light, are a set of rosary meditations introduced by Pope John Paul II in 2002. They are traditionally recited on Thursdays and include events such as the Baptism of Jesus and the Transfiguration.

    • Mysteries of the Rosary — The Mysteries of the Rosary are sets of meditations on episodes in the life of Christ, traditionally grouped as Joyful, Sorrowful, and Glorious. Pope John Paul II later added the Luminous mysteries, and the prayers are recited on a Dominican rosary in decades.

  • Sexual abuse scandals
    • sexual abuse of minors in the Roman Catholic Church — This topic concerns sexual abuse of minors within the Roman Catholic Church, including the abuse scandals exposed by the Boston Globe and covered by the John Jay Report. Organizations such as SNAP and Voice of the Faithful formed in response, and the issue has involved bishops and commissions led by figures such as Sean O’Malley and Bernard Law.
  • Social teaching
    • Rerum Novarum or New Things — Rerum Novarum is Leo XIII’s encyclical on the rights and duties of capital and labor. It condemns socialism, defends private property, and argues for fair wages and Catholic mutual associations.
  • Society of Jesus — The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, is a Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola and formally recognized in 1540. It is known for the Spiritual Exercises, missionary work, education, and obedience to the pope. Jesuit history includes Francis Xavier in Asia, Matteo Ricci in China, and mission settlements called reductions in South America; notable Jesuits also include Isaac Jogues, Jacques Marquette, Athanasius Kircher, and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.
    • Ignatius of Loyola — Ignatius of Loyola was the Spanish and Basque founder of the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) and the author of the Spiritual Exercises. After being wounded at Pamplona, he spent time in a cave near Manresa and developed the devotional exercises that helped define Jesuit spirituality; he is also described as a 16th-century soldier turned religious reformer.
      • Spiritual Exercises — The Spiritual Exercises are the meditations and prayers of Ignatius of Loyola that became foundational to the Society of Jesus. The work is organized into four weeks and includes sections such as The Kingdom of Christ and The Two Standards.

    • Robert Bellarmine — Robert Bellarmine was a Counter-Reformation Jesuit and cardinal known for defending papal authority in the Disputations. He also took part in the theological disputes around Bruno, Galileo, and the English Catholic oath under James I.

    • Saint Ignatius Loyola — Ignatius Loyola was a Spanish nobleman born Inigo Lopez de Recalde. After being wounded at Pamplona in 1521, he turned to religious life and later wrote the Spiritual Exercises. He founded the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, in 1539.

    • Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola — Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises is a set of prayers and meditations used in retreat. It is organized into four weeks and includes the practice of examen for discerning God’s presence and ordering the soul.

    • St. Francis Xavier — St. Francis Xavier was one of Ignatius of Loyola’s earliest companions and a major Jesuit missionary to India and East Asia. Clues about him often mention Goa, China, Japan, and the church of Il Gesù, where he is commemorated in art. He is also remembered for missionary work in Nagasaki and for naming Xavier University.

    • St. Ignatius of Loyola — St. Ignatius of Loyola founded the Jesuits after his conversion at Manresa and wrote the Spiritual Exercises, a guide to discernment and disciplined prayer. He was wounded at Pamplona, later promoted disciplined obedience, and inspired missionary work by figures such as Francis Xavier.

  • Spanish Inquisition — The Spanish Inquisition was the Catholic tribunal established in Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella and first led by Tomás de Torquemada. It policed converts, heresy, and religious conformity, prosecuted heresy, issued indexes of prohibited books, and staged public auto-da-fé ceremonies before its abolition in 1834. Associated figures and groups include Torquemada, moriscos, and conversos.

  • the Catholic Church — The Catholic Church is the global Christian institution centered on the papacy and the sacraments. Quizbowl clues often connect it to the Kulturkampf, confession, and ideas of grace in Catholic theology.

  • the Catholicism of John Fitzgerald Kennedy — The Catholicism of John F. Kennedy was a major issue in the 1960 presidential campaign and in his Houston speech defending church-state separation. His faith drew criticism from Protestant opponents such as Norman Vincent Peale and led Kennedy to insist that his religion would not control his presidency.

  • the Pope — The Pope is the head of the Roman Catholic Church, elected by the College of Cardinals in a conclave and symbolized by the keys of Saint Peter and the Ring of the Fisherman. The office is also called the bishop of Rome or supreme pontiff, is the successor of Saint Peter, and is associated with the papacy, the Curia, encyclicals, and the authority to canonize and excommunicate. Its history includes the Avignon Papacy, the Cadaver Synod, the Donation of Pepin, the forged Donation of Constantine, and periods when popes were styled prisoners of the Vatican.

  • Theologians
    • Hans Küng — Hans Küng was a Swiss Catholic theologian who questioned doctrines such as papal infallibility and the divinity of Christ. He wrote On Being a Christian and Does God Exist? and was censured by the Vatican.
  • Traditionalist Catholicism
    • Society of St. Pius X — The Society of St. Pius X was founded in 1970 by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre as a traditionalist Catholic society. Its long-running schism with Rome eased in 2002 when the society was welcomed back into the church.
  • U.S. bishops
    • Wilton Gregory — Wilton Gregory is an American Catholic cleric who served as a reform-minded bishop and was noted for removing abusive priests rather than simply reassigning them. He became the first African-American elected head of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops.

  • Urban VIII — A seventeenth-century pope who reigned during much of the Thirty Years’ War. He was a major patron of Baroque art, patronized Bernini, and commissioned the baldacchino in St. Peter’s Basilica. His reign is tied to the beginnings of Castel Gandolfo and fortifications at Civitavecchia. He canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, and Aloysius Gonzaga, tried Galileo for heresy, issued In eminenti against Jansenism, and issued a bull opposing the enslavement of Native Americans. He also reversed Gregory XIII’s restrictions and, through a namesake college, opened China and Japan to missionary proselytization.

  • Vatican — The Vatican is the Roman Catholic center in Italy, famous for its vast library and archives. Its holdings include documents such as the Donation of Constantine, a medieval forgery.

  • Vatican institutions
    • Swiss Guard — The Swiss Guard is the Vatican’s ceremonial and protective corps, first recruited by Julius II in 1506. It suffered a famous massacre during the Sack of Rome in 1527, when many of its members were killed.
  • vestments
    • chasuble — A chasuble is the principal outer Mass vestment worn by a priest and is usually colored according to the liturgical season. It covers the other vestments and developed from medieval garments resembling a sleeveless outer cloak.
• Eastern Orthodoxy — a communion of autocephalous (self-governing) churches (Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, etc.); rejects papal supremacy; known for its liturgical tradition and use of icons. It split from Rome in the Great Schism of 1054 and is organized around the patriarchates of the East, with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as first among equals in world Orthodoxy. Its churches commonly use the iconostasis, reject the Filioque clause, and preserve liturgical traditions such as the Divine Liturgy, hesychasm, the Jesus Prayer, and theosis; some churches use the Julian calendar. It is associated with Mount Athos, the title theotokos for Mary, married priests, the double-barred cross, and the Hagia Sophia’s original role as an Eastern Orthodox church. Its spread is tied to the conversion of Kievan Rus under Vladimir the Great, and services may include Chrismation; clergy are often identified by black hats and beards.

  • Dormition of the Theotokos — The Dormition of the Theotokos is the Orthodox commemoration of Mary’s death and falling asleep in August. It is preceded by a two-week fast in the Eastern Orthodox tradition.

  • Ecumenical Patriarchate
    • Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople — The ecumenical patriarch is the senior bishop of Eastern Orthodoxy and the titular head of the see of Constantinople, traditionally styled first among equals. The office is centered at the Church of St. George in Istanbul; notable holders include John Chrysostom, Photius, and Michael Cerularius. It is associated with the East-West Schism, Mount Athos, and the Greek church’s relationship to autocephaly.

  • holy fools — Holy fools, or fools for Christ, are Orthodox ascetics who imitate madness or irrational behavior as a sign of devotion. Famous examples include Simeon of Emesa, John of Moscow, and Saint Basil, whose name is attached to St. Basil’s Cathedral.

  • Old Believers — The Old Believers are the Russian Orthodox schismatics who rejected Patriarch Nikon’s reforms in the 17th century. They kept the older rites, including the two-finger sign of the cross, and were divided into priestly and priestless branches. Their literature and martyr stories often feature Avvakum and the Raskol.
    • Avvakum — Avvakum was a leading Old Believer and one of the chief opponents of Patriarch Nikon’s church reforms in seventeenth-century Russia. Questions about him often mention the Raskol, the two-fingered sign of the cross, beard taxes, exile, and his autobiographical Life Written by Himself.
  • Patriarchates
    • Eastern Orthodox patriarchates — The Eastern Orthodox Church has several autocephalous patriarchates, including Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, along with Georgia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania. These sees are named among the major patriarchates alongside Constantinople and Russia.
  • Russian Orthodox Church — The Russian Orthodox Church is the Orthodox denomination repeatedly tied to Peter the Great, Old Believers, and the liturgical tradition used by composers like Rachmaninov and Rimsky-Korsakov. Its music also appears in modern sacred works such as John Tavener’s The Protecting Veil and Song for Athene.
    • Patriarchs of Moscow
      • Nikon — Russian patriarch of Moscow under Tsar Alexis in the mid-17th century. He introduced liturgical reforms that triggered the Old Believers’ Raskol in the Russian Orthodox Church; he was condemned by a synod and deposed in 1666, reduced to monk status, though his reforms endured.
    • Raskol — The Raskol was the 17th-century schism in the Russian Orthodox Church that produced the Old Believers. It followed Patriarch Nikon’s reforms and split the dissenters into priestly and priestless branches.
• Oriental Orthodoxy — the non-Chalcedonian churches (Coptic, Ethiopian, Armenian, Syriac/Jacobite, Malankara); rejected the Council of Chalcedon’s two-nature definition; distinct from Eastern Orthodoxy.
  • Armenian Apostolic Church — The Armenian Apostolic Church is the ancient national church of Armenia, founded after Gregory the Illuminator converted Tiridates the Great in 301. It rejected Chalcedon, is centered at Etchmiadzin, and preserves distinctive traditions such as matagh and Khor Virap.

    • Gregory the Illuminator — Gregory the Illuminator is the Christian saint associated with the conversion of Armenia and the founding of its Apostolic Church. He is a standard clue in questions about Armenia’s early adoption of Christianity, Etchmiadzin, and Tiridates III.

    • the Illuminator — St. Gregory the Illuminator converted King Tiridates III of Armenia to Christianity and became the patron saint and first head of the Armenian Apostolic Church. The title also refers to a short-lived Marvel superhero who gained strength from his faith in Jesus.

  • Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church — An Oriental Orthodox church centered in Ethiopia, with its headquarters in Addis Ababa and liturgical use of Ge’ez. It reveres the tabot in each church, celebrates Timkat, and keeps an expanded biblical canon that includes books such as Enoch, Jubilees, and Meqabyan. Its tradition is tied to Axum, Menelik, and the Ark of the Covenant.
    • Ethiopian — Ethiopian can refer to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, an African-initiated Orthodox church that claims to possess the Ark of the Covenant. In biblical and prophetic contexts, the term also points to the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts and to figures such as Ebed-Melech in Jeremiah.
• Protestantism — the diverse denominations stemming from the Reformation: Lutheran, Reformed/Calvinist, Anglican/Episcopal, Methodist, Baptist, Pentecostal, and many others. It emerged from the Reformation and broke from papal authority. It includes branches such as Lutheranism, Reformed/Calvinism, Anglicanism/Episcopalism, Methodism, Baptist traditions, Pentecostalism, and many others; related historical associations include Weber’s Protestant ethic and the Huguenots.
  • Anglicanism — Anglicanism is the Christian tradition founded in England after Henry VIII’s reforms and associated with the Church of England, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles. Its history is often framed by the Elizabethan Settlement, the Black Rubric, Richard Hooker, and the later Tractarian controversy, and it spread through the Anglican Communion. The Archbishop of Canterbury is a major identifier.

    • Anglican Church — The Anglican Church, or Church of England, began under Henry VIII in 1534 after the break with Rome. It is associated with the Book of Common Prayer, the Thirty-Nine Articles, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lambeth Conferences held every ten years. Its theology and liturgy were shaped by Thomas Cranmer, Richard Hooker, and the later Tractarians, and its traditions include high-church and low-church divisions. American offshoots include the Episcopal Church.

    • Anglican Communion — The Anglican Communion is the worldwide fellowship of churches descended from the Church of England. It is associated with the Book of Common Prayer, Choral Evensong, and the Archbishop of Canterbury, with figures such as Desmond Tutu and Justin Welby appearing in clues.

      • Church of Nigeria — The Church of Nigeria is a major Anglican body and the second-largest church in the Anglican Communion. It has been associated with the Anglican Realignment and with efforts to move away from the See of Canterbury.

      • Lambeth Conference — The Lambeth Conference is the periodic gathering of bishops from the Anglican Communion, usually held about every ten years. Named for the London borough of Lambeth, it was formerly associated with Lambeth Palace, the archbishop’s residence. The conference has been a venue for debate over issues such as the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed.

    • Archbishops of Canterbury

      • Rowan Williams — Rowan Williams is a Welsh theologian who served as Archbishop of Canterbury. Before that he held academic posts at Oxford and was bishop of Monmouth and then archbishop of Wales.

      • Sarah Mullally — Sarah Mullally is the former Bishop of London and a former Chief Nursing Officer for England. She was named as the first female Archbishop of Canterbury in 2026.

    • Articles of Religion
      • Thirty-Nine Articles — The Thirty-Nine Articles are the doctrinal statements that define Anglican belief. First devised in 1563 and authorized in 1571, they remained central to the Church of England and influenced the Episcopal Church in America.

    • Book of Common Prayer — The Anglican Book of Common Prayer is Thomas Cranmer’s liturgical compilation for the English church, first issued in 1549. It condensed Latin medieval services into a single English volume and was backed by the Act of Uniformity. It standardized Church of England worship and later appeared in revised form for the Episcopal Church and other Anglican bodies. Commonly cited passages include prayers about human mortality, deliverance from evil, and the marriage formula “Those whom God hath joined together, let no man put asunder.”

    • Clapham Sect — The Clapham Sect was an evangelical Anglican reform group associated with William Wilberforce, Henry Thornton, Granville Sharp, and Zachary Macaulay. Based around Clapham in London, they were influential in abolition and in campaigns such as the founding of Sierra Leone.

    • Doctrinal standards
      • The Thirty-Nine Articles — The Thirty-Nine Articles are the doctrinal foundation of the Church of England, fixed in the Elizabethan settlement. They set out Protestant theology while preserving an Anglican liturgical framework.

    • Episcopal Church — The American branch of Anglicanism, organized around a triennial General Convention of bishops and deputies. It uses the Book of Common Prayer, accepts the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds, and was founded in Philadelphia in 1789 after the Revolution. Its leaders have included Samuel Seabury and William White, and it is associated with debates over women’s ordination and Gene Robinson. The church broke with the Church of England after the Revolution and is the largest American branch of the Anglican Communion.

    • Episcopalianism — Episcopalianism is the American form of Anglicanism. Its origins are linked to Samuel Seabury and the post-Revolutionary reorganization of Anglican worship in the United States.

    • Oxford movement — The Oxford movement was a 19th-century High Church Anglican revival associated with Oxford. Also called Tractarianism, it sought to recover Catholic roots in Anglicanism and to revive Catholic ritual and doctrine within the Church of England, stressing the church’s catholic and apostolic character. Its leaders included John Keble, R. H. Froude, Edward Pusey, and John Henry Newman, and its pamphlets were collected as Tracts for the Times.
      • Edward Bouverie Pusey — Edward Bouverie Pusey was a leading figure in the Oxford Movement and a defender of Tractarian theology. He argued for the Real Presence and helped revive Anglican interest in confession and Eucharistic doctrine.

    • Richard Hooker — Richard Hooker was an English theologian whose major work was Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. He defended the Church of England by arguing for the authority of scripture alongside reason and tradition.

    • Tracts for the Times — Tracts for the Times was a series of Anglican theological pamphlets published from 1833 to 1841 and closely associated with the Oxford Movement. Its contributors included John Keble, Edward Pusey, and John Henry Newman, and the series helped give the Tractarians their name.

  • Antinomians — Antinomians were a religious group associated with Anne Hutchinson and a strong emphasis on divine grace over human works. Their outlook stressed waiting for Christ to do all for the believer rather than relying on personal effort.

  • Assemblies of God — The Assemblies of God is a major Pentecostal denomination founded in 1914 and now the largest Pentecostal body in the world. It is known for the Sixteen Fundamental Truths and for branches such as Australia’s Australian Christian Churches and South Korea’s Yoido Full Gospel Church.
    • World Assemblies of God Fellowship — The World Assemblies of God Fellowship is the global network associated with the Assemblies of God, a major Pentecostal denomination. It traces its roots to the 1914 Hot Springs meeting and the Azusa Street revival, and later split from the Oneness faction.
  • Baptists — Baptists are a Protestant denomination associated with believer’s baptism by full immersion, congregational independence, and the separation of church and state. Quizbowl clues often point to Roger Williams’s Providence church, the Southern Baptist Convention, and internal splits such as General, Particular, and Primitive Baptists.

    • John Smyth — John Smyth was an early Baptist leader who rejected infant baptism and helped found the General Baptists. He later tried to unite his church with the Mennonites, and his writings include The Character of the Beast.

    • Southern Baptists — Southern Baptists are the largest Baptist denomination in the United States and grew out of the American South. They are named for believer’s baptism, a rite performed by full immersion.

    • the Danbury Baptists — The Danbury Baptists were the religious group that wrote to Thomas Jefferson fearing persecution. Jefferson’s reply helped popularize the phrase about a wall of separation between church and state.

  • Calvinism — Calvinism is the Reformed Protestant tradition associated with John Calvin and doctrines such as total depravity, unconditional election, and predestination. It is often summarized by TULIP and is linked to Geneva, the Huguenots, and later Presbyterian traditions.

    • Genevan Catechism — The Genevan Catechism is John Calvin’s 1541 catechism, written in question-and-answer form to teach the basics of faith. It was meant as a guide for children and adults and sits at the center of Calvinist instruction.

    • Jonathan Edwards — Jonathan or John Edwards can refer to the Calvinist theologian who wrote Religious Affections and served as president of the College of New Jersey. The same name also applies to another historical figure associated with the Philadelphia Experiment.

    • Predestination — Predestination is the Calvinist doctrine that God has already determined who will be saved and who will be damned. It is tied to debates over original sin, election, reprobation, supralapsarianism, infralapsarianism, and the Synod of Dort, and is especially associated with John Calvin and later Reformed theology.
      • elect — In Calvinist theology, the elect are the people chosen by God for salvation. The term is also used for the ascetic Manichaean followers and appears in discussions of unconditional election.

    • Theodore Beza — Theodore Beza succeeded John Calvin as a leader of the Reformed church in Geneva. He was also associated with the Calvinist tradition and taught Arminius.

    • total depravity — Total depravity is the Calvinist doctrine that humanity is so corrupted by original sin that it cannot save itself without divine grace. It is one of the Five Points of Calvinism and is discussed in the Institutes and at the Synod of Dort.
  • Church structures
    • megachurches — Megachurches are very large Protestant congregations, usually measured by weekly attendance in the thousands. Famous examples include South Korea’s Yoido Full Gospel Church and Rick Warren’s Saddleback Church.

      • Lakewood Church — Lakewood Church is Joel Osteen’s Houston megachurch and one of the largest Protestant congregations in the United States. It moved into the former Compaq Center, the old home of the Houston Rockets.

      • Saddleback Church — Saddleback Church is the large Lake Forest, California megachurch founded by Rick Warren. It later drew attention for Warren’s Daniel Fast advocacy and for being removed from the Southern Baptist Convention after hiring a female pastor.

  • Congregationalism — Congregationalism is a Protestant form of church government that gives each local congregation authority over its own affairs. It emphasizes covenant membership, congregational choice of leaders, and rejection of presbyterian and episcopal control.

    • Congregationalists — Congregationalists were the Protestant group against which the Danbury Baptists feared persecution. In early American religious history, they are often linked with New England Puritan traditions.

    • Richard Mather — Richard Mather was a Congregationalist theologian in colonial New England and a contributor to the Bay Psalm Book. He helped promote the Half-Way Covenant and wrote works such as Church Government and Church Covenant Discussed and The Platform of Church Discipline.

  • Denominations
    • Presbyterianism — A Protestant tradition associated with John Calvin and John Knox, named for a church government led by elders or presbyters. Its congregations are organized by sessions of elders under a hierarchy of church officers with legislative and judicial authority, and it is governed by a General Assembly. It traces back to Scottish Calvinism; the Old School-New School split, the Fundamentalist-Modernist controversies, and its catechism in the Book of Confessions are associated with it.

      • Gilbert Tennent — Gilbert Tennent was an Irish-born Presbyterian preacher associated with the First Great Awakening. He is remembered for the sermon “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry” and for helping lead the New Side faction of the Presbyterian Church.

      • Presbyterian Church USA — The Presbyterian Church USA is a Presbyterian denomination whose name comes from the Greek word for elder. It is associated with the Scottish Reformation and the influence of John Knox.

  • Dissenters
    • English dissenters — English dissenters were Protestants who separated from the Church of England and were often excluded from Oxford and Cambridge. They appear in polemics by writers such as Daniel Defoe and Joseph Priestley.

      • Ranters — The Ranters were a radical English sect that rejected conventional moral restraints and emphasized inner divine presence. They were associated with antinomian behavior and figures such as Laurence Clarkson.

      • the Muggletonians — The Muggletonians were an English antinomian sect founded by John Reeve and Lodowicke Muggleton after the Civil War. They rejected purely spiritual theology, taught that God had a glorified body, and believed they could damn opponents to hell.

  • doctrines
    • Sola Scriptura — Sola scriptura is the Protestant principle that Scripture is the final authority in matters of faith and church practice. It is one of the Reformation’s classic solas and is strongly associated with Martin Luther and later Lutheran theology.
  • German church resistance
    • Confessing Church — The Confessing Church was a German Protestant movement that resisted Nazi efforts to control and Nazify the churches and opposed the pro-Nazi Reich Church (Reichskirche). Its founding principles were expressed in the Barmen Declaration. It was associated with Martin Niemöller, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, and Karl Barth.
  • Huguenots
    • Huguenot — A Huguenot was a French Calvinist Protestant, especially during the French Wars of Religion and the period after the Edict of Nantes. The term often appears in connection with persecution after the Edict of Fontainebleau and with refugee communities in German cities.
  • Lutheranism — The Protestant tradition founded by Martin Luther and defined by the Augsburg Confession, the Book of Concord, and the Small and Large Catechisms. It emphasizes salvation by grace through faith and is associated with major synod divisions in the United States, including the Missouri Synod and the ELCA. Dietrich Bonhoeffer came from this tradition before helping to form the anti-Nazi Confessing Church.
    • Confessional documents
      • Confession of Augsburg — The Confession of Augsburg is the defining Lutheran statement prepared by Philipp Melanchthon and presented in 1530. It affirms salvation by faith alone and lays out a series of articles and corrections to abuses. It is associated with the Diet of Augsburg, the Schmalkaldic League, and later debate over the Variata version.
    • Confessional writings
      • The Book of Concord — The Book of Concord is the standard collection of Lutheran confessional writings, published in 1580. It gathers the Augsburg Confession, the Apology, the Smalcald Articles, the catechisms, and the Formula of Concord.
    • Confessions
      • Augsburg Confession — The central Lutheran statement of faith, written chiefly by Philipp Melanchthon and presented to Charles V at the 1530 Diet of Augsburg. It affirms justification by faith alone, the real presence in the Eucharist, and the authority of scripture, and is included in the Book of Concord.
    • Hymns
      • Lutheran chorales — Lutheran chorales are hymn tunes and four-part settings used in Lutheran worship. J. S. Bach based many cantatas on them, and examples include “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God” and “Sleepers Awake.”

    • Lutheran — Lutheranism is the Protestant tradition associated with Martin Luther and with church bodies such as the Missouri Synod and the ELCA. It is especially prominent in Scandinavia and in parts of the German-speaking world.

    • Philip Melanchthon — A leading Lutheran reformer, theologian, and educator, he was the chief author of the Augsburg Confession and wrote Loci Communes, an early systematization of Lutheran thought. He worked closely with Martin Luther, promoted humanist learning, helped reorganize German schooling from Wittenberg, and earned the epithet Praeceptor Germaniae.

    • Philipp Melanchthon — German reformer and theologian who helped codify Luther’s teachings and systematize Lutheran theology. He authored the Augsburg Confession, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, and Loci Communes, and became a major leader of Lutheranism after Luther’s death.
  • Methodism — Protestant revival movement that began within the Church of England in eighteenth-century England, shaped by John and Charles Wesley and the Oxford Holy Club. It emphasized disciplined devotion, evangelical and open-air preaching, justification by faith, the new birth, and the covenant prayer associated with Wesley. Methodism is also associated with the Wesleyan Quadrilateral of scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. It spread through the First Great Awakening via George Whitefield and later expanded in America after 1784 through figures such as Francis Asbury, Philip Embury, and Thomas Coke, contributing to later denominations such as AME churches.

    • circuit riders — Circuit riders were itinerant frontier Protestant ministers, especially Methodist clergy, who traveled assigned routes on horseback to serve scattered appointments across wide geographical circuits in the early United States. They were especially associated with isolated frontier communities in the rural South and Midwest, including Kentucky and Illinois; Francis Asbury and Peter Cartwright were famous examples.

    • hymns
      • Charles Wesley — Charles Wesley was a prolific Methodist hymnodist and the author of hymns such as “Hark! the Herald Angels Sing” and “Christ the Lord Is Risen Today.” He traveled to Georgia with his brother John Wesley and wrote many of the best-known hymns in English Protestant worship.

    • Methodist — A Methodist is a member of the Protestant denomination founded by John Wesley and associated in America with Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke. The name began as an Oxford insult for the group’s disciplined religious habits.

    • Methodist Church — The Methodist Church is a Protestant denomination that grew out of the evangelical work of John Wesley. It began within Anglicanism and later became one of the largest Protestant bodies in America.

    • Methodists — Methodists are Protestants rooted in John Wesley’s revival movement, which began as the Holy Club at Oxford and grew into bands and societies organized with his brother Charles Wesley. The movement was known for strict routines of prayer and study, was strengthened in America by the First Great Awakening, and spread widely under early leaders such as Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke.

    • United Methodist Church — The United Methodist Church is a major mainline Protestant denomination with roots in the Wesley brothers and early American Methodism. It uses a connectional polity with bishops, annual conferences, and jurisdictions, and formed in 1968 by uniting with the Evangelical United Brethren.

    • Wesley family — The Wesley family produced Susanna Wesley and the brothers John and Charles Wesley, the founders of Methodism. Its clues often center on Susanna’s disciplined prayer life and Charles Wesley’s hymns, especially “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing.”
      • Wesley — Wesley is the surname shared by John and Charles Wesley, the brothers associated with the founding of Methodism. Charles wrote hymns such as “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing,” while John helped shape the movement’s theology and the Wesleyan tradition.
    • Wesleyan Quadrilateral — The Wesleyan Quadrilateral is the Methodist framework for theology built from Scripture, Tradition, Reason, and Experience. John Wesley used these sources in his own interpretive practice, though the modern phrase was coined later by Albert C. Outler. It is a standard clue for Methodist doctrinal method.

  • Moravians — The Moravians are a Protestant movement rooted in the Hussite tradition of the Czech lands and associated with Central European origins. They are known for planned settlements such as Herrnhut, Gracehill, Christiansfeld, and Wachovia, and for practices like the lovefeast and the use of lots. They are also linked to the devotional strictures followed by John Wesley and to early Methodist history and George Whitefield.

  • Pentecostalism — Pentecostalism is a Protestant Christian movement centered on the gifts of the Holy Spirit, especially speaking in tongues and baptism with the Spirit. Its modern American rise is linked to early twentieth-century revivals such as the Azusa Street Revival and figures like Charles Fox Parham and William Seymour. It is associated with ecstatic worship and later branches such as the Foursquare Gospel and Oneness Pentecostalism; some churches also practice snake handling.

    • Aimee Semple McPherson — Pentecostal evangelist who founded the Foursquare Church (or Foursquare Gospel movement) in Los Angeles and preached at the Angelus Temple. She helped popularize religious broadcasting and radio evangelism through her ministry and magazines such as Bridal Call, and became nationally notorious after a kidnapping scandal involving her alleged kidnapping and death.

    • Azusa Street Revival — The Azusa Street Revival was a 1906 Pentecostal awakening in Los Angeles led by William J. Seymour. It began at Bonnie Brae and moved to the Azusa Street Mission, becoming a major source of modern Pentecostalism.

    • Benny Hinn — Benny Hinn is a televangelist associated with faith healing, speaking in tongues, and the television program This Is Your Day!. He founded ministry work centered in Orlando after being born in Jaffa, Israel.

    • denominations
      • International Church of the Foursquare Gospel — Pentecostal denomination founded by Aimee Semple McPherson in 1927. Its name refers to McPherson’s vision and to its emphasis on Christ as Redeemer, Baptizer, Great Physician, and Soon-Coming King; it became known through McPherson’s preaching and later leadership centered on the Foursquare Gospel theme.

    • glossolalia — The utterance of unintelligible syllables, often in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity as a form of speaking in tongues. It is associated with the Day of Pentecost, the baptism of the Holy Spirit, ecstatic religious practice, and the biblical account in Acts; it became central to modern Pentecostalism through Azusa Street figures such as William Seymour, Charles Parham, and Agnes Ozman, and is also discussed by C. S. Lewis and in First Corinthians.

    • Oral Roberts — Oral Roberts was a Pentecostal televangelist and prosperity-gospel pioneer whose ministry became associated with Tulsa, Oklahoma. He founded Oral Roberts University and became famous for dramatic healing claims and fundraising appeals.

    • Salvation on Sand Mountain — Salvation on Sand Mountain is Denis Covington’s account of Appalachian Pentecostal snake handling, a practice associated with the longer ending of Mark and with George Went Hensley.

    • snake handling — Snake handling is an Appalachian Pentecostal ritual or practice in which believers handle venomous snakes as a sign or test of faith and divine protection. It is associated with George Went Hensley, the longer ending of Mark, books such as Salvation on Sand Mountain, and often with related practices such as drinking poison.

  • Pietism — Pietism was a Protestant reform movement, especially within Lutheranism and German Lutheranism, that stressed heartfelt personal devotion, practical faith, and personal Bible study over formal church orthodoxy. It is associated with Philipp Jakob Spener, whose Pia Desideria is a central text, and with August Hermann Francke. The movement later influenced Moravian and Methodist traditions and had later offshoots and critics in Germany and the Netherlands.

  • Protestant — A Protestant is a Christian associated with the Reformation and with Martin Luther’s break from Rome. The term comes from the protests at the Second Diet of Speyer, and Weber contrasted a Protestant ethic with the spirit of capitalism.

  • Reformed tradition

    • Heinrich Bullinger — Heinrich Bullinger succeeded Zwingli as head of the Zurich church and became a major Swiss Reformation theologian. He collaborated with Calvin on the Consensus Tigurinus and wrote the Second Helvetic Confession.

    • Synod of Dort — The Synod of Dort was the 1618–1619 Dutch Reformed council that condemned the Remonstrants and answered the Arminian controversy. Its Canons of Dort defended standard Calvinist doctrines such as total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints.

  • Reformed traditions
    • Presbyterian — Presbyterianism is a Calvinist Protestant tradition associated with John Knox and the Scottish Reformation. Its polity is governed by elders and it became a distinct church tradition in the seventeenth century. Clues may also mention its spread in Korea and its later status as a Nonconformist body in England after the Restoration.
  • Social Gospel — The Social Gospel was a Protestant movement that sought to apply Christian ethics to the problems of industrial society. It was associated with Washington Gladden and Walter Rauschenbusch and influenced reform campaigns such as Men and Religion Forward.
    • Walter Rauschenbusch — Walter Rauschenbusch was a leading voice of the Social Gospel movement and the author of Christianity and the Social Crisis. He argued that Christianity should confront social sins such as class division, militarism, and corruption, and he helped found the Brotherhood of the Kingdom.

  • Southern Baptist Convention — The largest Protestant denomination/body in the United States. It is a conservative denomination headquartered in Nashville and emphasizes believer’s baptism by full immersion. Its modern history includes the Conservative Resurgence and the Faith and Message, and figures associated with it in the records include Billy Graham, Russell Moore, Mike Huckabee, and Jimmy Carter.

  • Theological Traditions
    • Arminianism — Arminianism is the Protestant tradition associated with Jacobus Arminius and later the Remonstrants. It rejects strict predestination in favor of a more universal saving grace and was condemned at the Synod of Dort; John Wesley was influenced by it.
      • Jacobus Arminius — Jacobus Arminius was the Dutch theologian whose challenge to strict Calvinist predestination led to Arminianism. His followers, the Remonstrants, were condemned at the Synod of Dort, and his ideas later influenced Methodism.
  • Waldensian — The Waldensians are a Protestant predecessor movement founded by Peter Waldo, also known as the Poor Men of Lyons. They were later restricted from preaching but survived and were eventually incorporated into Protestant traditions.
• Evangelical Christianity — emphasizes the authority of the Bible, personal conversion (being “born again”), and active evangelism. It is a Protestant movement often associated with “born-again” language, and it may overlap with Pentecostal or charismatic Christianity. Tanya Luhrmann’s When God Talks Back is a study of direct prayer among evangelical Christians.

  • Billy Graham — William Franklin “Billy” Graham Jr. was a prominent 20th-century Southern Baptist evangelist who led large-scale crusades and hosted the radio program Hour of Decision. He was influential in U.S. public life, advised several U.S. presidents, founded Christianity Today, and was associated with the Lausanne movement. He is also associated with the evangelical “Billy Graham rule” and with high-profile preaching events from Madison Square Garden to North Korea.

  • Dr. James Dobson — Dr. James Dobson founded Focus on the Family, the conservative Christian ministry based in Colorado Springs. He became one of the organization’s best-known public voices on family and social issues.

  • Jerry Falwell Sr. — Jerry Falwell Sr. was a Baptist minister, televangelist, and conservative political organizer who founded Liberty University and the Moral Majority. He became notorious for culture-war commentary and for a successful libel suit against Hustler.

  • Ted Haggard — Ted Haggard is the former evangelical pastor who founded New Life Church and led the National Association of Evangelicals. He resigned after allegations involving methamphetamine use and a male prostitute, and he also became known through a high-profile documentary and debates over same-sex marriage.

• Anabaptism — a Radical Reformation movement rejecting infant baptism in favor of believer’s baptism; ancestors of the Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites; persecuted by both Catholics and magisterial Protestants. It is associated with the Mennonites, Amish, and Hutterites, and with pacifist communities such as those described in Martyrs Mirror.
  • Amish — The Amish are an Anabaptist Christian sect that split from the Mennonites in the late 17th century and are especially associated with plain dress, horse-and-buggy travel, and resistance to modern technology. Their communal discipline includes the ordnung and meidung, and Wisconsin v. Yoder upheld their right to limit schooling after elementary grades. The Old Order Amish are a traditional Amish community known for horse buggies, plain dress, and rejection of much modern technology; their culture is often discussed through rumspringa, Martyrs’ Mirror, and communities in places such as Lancaster County and Ohio.
    • Jakob Ammann — Jakob Ammann founded the Amish movement, a conservative Anabaptist community that split from the Swiss Mennonites. The Amish are associated with rumspringa, the Ordnung, horse-and-buggy travel, and a rejection of many forms of modern technology.

  • Hutterites — The Hutterites are an Anabaptist sect named for Moravian reformer Jacob Hutter. They are concentrated in Canada and the northern Great Plains, where many live in collective colonies with shared property.

  • Leaders
    • John of Leyden — John of Leyden was a leader of the Münster Anabaptists, a radical religious group that briefly controlled the city in the sixteenth century. He was associated with communal property, polygamy, and claims of sainthood before the revolt was crushed and he was executed.
  • Menno Simons — Menno Simons was a Dutch Anabaptist leader whose teaching stressed nonviolence and helped give rise to the Mennonites. His writings attacked the Münster rebellion and became foundational for a later denomination that adopted the Dordrecht Confession.
• Eastern Catholic Churches

  • Eastern Rite Churches — Eastern Rite churches are Catholic churches that retain their own liturgies and spiritual traditions while being in union with Rome. They are commonly grouped as Alexandrian, Antiochene, Byzantine, Chaldean, and Armenian, and the Ukrainian Catholic Church is the largest example.

  • Maronite Church — The Maronite Church is an Eastern Catholic church centered in Lebanon and headed from Bkerké. Its history is tied to Saint Maron, the West Syriac Rite, and conflicts with the Druze, and it was reconciled with Rome in the early modern period.

    • Maronites — The Maronites are a major Lebanese Christian community, historically linked to the Syriac Maronite Church of Antioch. Their patriarch resides at Bkirki, and the group holds Lebanon’s presidency under the confessional system.

    • Syriac Maronite Church of Antioch — The Syriac Maronite Church of Antioch is an Eastern Catholic church centered in Lebanon. It is the predominant Christian denomination there and is based around Bkerke.

• Papal encyclicals
  • Deus Caritas Est — Deus Caritas Est is Pope Benedict XVI’s first encyclical. It treats love and charity in Christian life and distinguishes eros, agape, and philia.
• Roman Catholic Church
  • papal residences
    • Lateran — Lateran names the Roman palace complex long associated with the papacy and with several ecumenical councils. It also appears in the Lateran Pacts, the treaty negotiated by Pietro Gasparri and signed with Mussolini’s government.
• Traditionalist Catholicism
  • Marcel Lefebvre — Marcel Lefebvre was a French Catholic archbishop and outspoken opponent of modernist reforms. He broke with the Church in 1988 by consecrating bishops without papal approval, an act that led to excommunication and a major schism within traditionalist Catholicism.
• Eastern Christianity

  • patriarch — A patriarch is the title held by the highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy and several Eastern Catholic churches. The office includes figures such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and the Patriarch of Moscow.

  • theosis — Theosis is the Eastern Christian goal of becoming united with God or made godlike through mystical life and practice. The term is especially associated with Orthodox theology, where it is treated as a central aim of salvation.

• Eastern Orthodox Church

  • Bartholomew I — Bartholomew I, also known as Dimitrios Arhondonis, has served as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople since 1991. He is first among equals in the Orthodox communion.

  • Divine Liturgy — The Divine Liturgy is the Orthodox Christian equivalent of the Catholic Mass. It includes forms associated with Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Basil and is the principal Sunday worship service in Eastern Christianity.

    • Kyrie — The Kyrie is the mass movement whose text begins with the Greek word for ‘Lord’ and continues with ‘eleison.’ It appears near the start of the ordinary of the Mass and is also set in requiems.

    • Liturgy of the Word and Liturgy of the Eucharist — In Roman Catholic liturgy, the Mass is divided into the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.

  • Hymns
    • Axion Estin — Axion Estin is a Byzantine hymn to the Theotokos, meaning “It Is Truly Meet.” Tradition links it to Mount Athos, where Gabriel is said to have revealed the hymn to a monk.

  • John Chrysostom — John Chrysostom was a fourth-century Christian preacher and bishop whose eloquence earned him the nickname “golden-mouthed.” He is associated with Easter homilies, anti-Judaic sermons, and his deposition at the Synod of the Oak.

  • Liturgical furnishings
    • iconostasis — The iconostasis is the screen or wall in an Eastern Orthodox church that separates the nave from the sanctuary. It is covered with icons and includes the Royal Door and Deacon’s Doors.
  • Patriarchs
    • Patriarch of Moscow — The Patriarch of Moscow is the highest title in the Russian Orthodox Church. Historical clues include Filaret, the reform disputes of seventeenth-century Russia, and the later elevation of the Moscow see to patriarchal rank.

• Armenians — Armenians are a Caucasian ethnic group centered on Armenia and the Armenian Apostolic Church, whose leader is the Catholicos of all Armenians. They are associated with a long Christian tradition and a major diaspora spread across the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. Commonly cited details include the Armenian genocide of 1915, New Julfa in Isfahan, Mesrop Mashtots’s alphabet, Gregory the Illuminator, the modern state of Armenia, and folk traditions such as the kochari and the duduk, along with composers Aram Khachaturian and Alan Hovhaness. The people are also called Hay or Hayer in Armenian.

• Oriental Orthodox Church
  • Coptic Orthodox Church — The Coptic Orthodox Church is the main Christian church of Egypt and one of the Oriental Orthodox churches. Centered in Alexandria and traditionally traced to St. Mark, it is headed by the Pope of Alexandria, including Pope Tawadros II and previously Shenouda III. It broke from the wider Chalcedonian churches after the Council of Chalcedon in 451 over Christological disputes, and its tradition is described as miaphysite or monophysite. Coptic Christianity uses the Coptic liturgical language, dates years from the Diocletian era, and has distinctive liturgy, fasting traditions, monastic life, and the use of the crux ansata; its worship can include cymbals and triangle accompaniment. The Coptic calendar has three seasons and a short intercalary month called Pi Kogi Enavot. Coptic identity is also associated with visible cross tattoos in some places. The tradition recognizes books such as Tobit and Judith as canonical and is the source from which Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity developed. It also received wider attention after the 2015 ISIS beheadings of Coptic Christians in Libya.
    • Copts — The Copts are the Arabic-speaking Christian community of Egypt, historically associated with the Coptic Orthodox Church and with monophysite or miaphysite theology. Their church traces its foundation to St. Mark at Alexandria, and their history is closely tied to disputes over the nature of Christ after the Council of Chalcedon. Major monasteries include Wadi Natrun, and notable figures include Shenoute and Pope Shenouda III.
• Protestant denominations
  • Baptist — Baptists are a Protestant Christian tradition identified by believer’s baptism rather than infant baptism. Their history is often traced to early seventeenth-century English separatists, with an early congregation founded in Providence in 1638. Quizbowl clues may also point to prominent Baptist figures such as Warren G. Harding, Harry Truman, and Jimmy Carter.
• Quakerism
  • Hicksite Quakers
    • Elias Hicks — Elias Hicks was a Quaker minister whose emphasis on the Inner Light and rejection of rigid creed helped trigger the Hicksite-Orthodox split in American Quakerism. His followers formed a separate branch after the 1827 schism.
  • inner light — The inner light is a central Quaker belief that each person contains God’s presence and can be led to truth through quiet reflection. It underlies unprogrammed worship and Quaker ideals of moral guidance and conscience.
• Stone-Campbell Movement

  • Alexander Campbell — Alexander Campbell was a major figure in the early Restoration Movement and a principal founder of the Disciples of Christ. He helped promote the idea of returning Christianity to the New Testament model and helped shape the churches of the Stone-Campbell tradition.

  • Churches of Christ — Churches of Christ are autonomous Protestant congregations that emphasize strict biblical authority. They are known for rejecting instrumental accompaniment in worship and for opposing organized missionary boards.

    • Boston Church of Christ — The Boston Church of Christ was a 1979 breakoff movement founded by Kip McKean that developed into a larger restorationist sect. It grew through so-called pillar churches in cities such as Chicago and London and published Upside Down magazine.
• Adventism

  • Great Disappointment — The Great Disappointment was the failure of William Miller’s followers to see Jesus return on October 22, 1844. It became a key moment in Adventist history and is linked to later Seventh-day Adventist ideas such as the investigative judgment.

  • Seventh-day Adventist Church — A Protestant Christian denomination that grew out of the Millerite movement after William Miller’s failed prediction that Christ would return in 1844, remembered as the Great Disappointment. It observes the Sabbath from Friday sunset to Saturday sunset, is associated with Ellen G. White and Joseph Bates, and emphasizes ideas such as an investigative judgment in the heavenly sanctuary and the ultimate annihilation of the wicked rather than eternal punishment.

• American evangelicalism
  • National Prayer Breakfast — The National Prayer Breakfast is the annual Washington meeting hosted by the Fellowship Foundation on the first Thursday in February. It was founded by Abraham Vereide and later led by Douglas Coe, and it has served as a platform for figures such as Ben Carson and Mike Huckabee to make public remarks tied to religion and politics.
• Anabaptists
  • Mennonite — The Mennonites are an Anabaptist Christian group associated with Menno Simons and adult baptism. They are also known for pacifism and for historical ties to the Amish, who split from them as a related movement.
• Russian Christianity
  • Spiritual Christianity
    • Doukhobors — Russian Christian pacifist sect whose name means “spirit wrestlers.” They rejected scripture and external authority in favor of an inner light and an oral “Book of Life” tradition, and were persecuted for rejecting icons and authority. With support from Leo Tolstoy and others, large numbers migrated to western Canada, especially Saskatchewan. The Sons of Freedom splinter group later became known for nude protests and arson.
      • Leaders
        • Peter Verigin — Peter Verigin was a major Doukhobor leader who guided his people out of Russian persecution and into Canada. He led the sect in the early 20th century and was central to its migrations and resistance.